• No up-front commitments
• On-demand access
• Nice pricing
• Simplified application acceleration and scalability
• Efficient resource allocation
• Energy efficiency
• Seamless creation and use of third-party services

1. Software as a service - (SaaS) involves the licensure of a software application to customers. Licenses are typically provided through a pay-as-you-go model or on-demand. This type of system can be found in Microsoft Office 365.
2. Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) involves a method for delivering everything from operating systems to servers and storage through IP-based connectivity as part of an on-demand service. Clients can avoid the need to purchase software or servers, and instead procure these resources in an outsourced, on-demand service. Popular examples of the IaaS system include IBM Cloud and Microsoft Azure.
3. Platform as a service (PaaS) is considered the most complex of the three layers of cloud-based computing. PaaS shares some similarities with SaaS, the primary difference being that instead of delivering software online, it is actually a platform for creating software that is delivered via the Internet. This model includes platforms like Salesforce.com and Heroku.

• No up-front commitments
• On-demand access
• Nice pricing
• Simplified application acceleration and scalability
• Efficient resource allocation
• Energy efficiency
• Seamless creation and use of third-party services

1. It is virtualizable and
2. A VMM without any timing dependencies can be constructed for it.

1. Amazon web services (AWS)
2. Google AppEngine
3. Microsoft Azure
4. Hadoop
5. Force.com and Salesforce.com
6. Manjrasoft Aneka

• Managed execution and isolation are perhaps the most important advantages of virtualization.
• allow building secure and controllable computing environments.
• This enables fine tuning of resources, which is important in a server consolidation and is also a requirement for effective quality of service
• Portability especially for execution virtualization techniques
• Java programs are compiled once and run every where. they only require that the java Virtual Machine be installed on the host.
• To achieve a more efficient use of resources the underlying host, without interfering with each other.

• Performance degradation since virtualization interposes an abstraction layer b/w the guest and the host , the guest can experience increased latencies
• Binary transition and interpretation can slow down the execution of managed applications
• inefficiency and degraded user explain leads to an experience leads to an inefficient use of the host
• Some of the specific features of the host cannot be exposed by the abstraction layer and then become an inaccesible
• Security holes and new threats opens the door to a new and unexpected form of phishing

• In a virtualized environment there are three major components: guest, host, and virtualization layer.
• The guest represents the system component that interacts with the virtualization layer rather than with the host, as would normally happen.
• The host represents the original environment where the guest is supposed to be managed.
• The virtualization layer is responsible for recreating the same or a different environment where the guest will operate
• in the case of hardware virtualization, the guest is represented by a system image Compromising an operating system & installed application
• These are installed on top of Virtual hardware that is controlled & managed by the Virtualization layer also called Virtual machine mangager

• To create different and separated execution environments for applications that are managed concurrently.
• There is no virtual machine manager or hypervisor, and the virtualization is done within a single operating system.
• OS kernel allows for multiple isolated user space instances.
• chroot mechanism in Unix systems. The chroot operation changes the file system root directory for a process and its children to a specific directory.
• The process and its children cannot have access to other portions of the file system.

• To achieve ease of deployment of applications, managed execution, and portability across different platforms and operating systems.
• It consists of a virtual machine executing the byte code of a program, which is the result of the compilation process.
• Generally these virtual machines constitute a simplification of the underlying hardware instruction set and provide some high-level instructions that map some of the features of the languages compiled for them.
• Basic Combined Programming Language
• Both Java and the CLI are stack-based virtual machines.

• Such emulation is performed by a thin layer - a program or an operating system component that is in charge of executing the application.
• Interpretation - In this technique every source instruction is interpreted by an emulator for executing native ISA instructions, leading to poor performance.
• Binary translation - In this technique every source instruction is converted to native instructions with equivalent functions. After a block of instructions is translated, it is cached and reused.
• SaaS utilizes application-level virtualization to deploy the application

<html>
<head>
<title> Unordered List </title>
</head>
<body>
<h1> Some Common Single-Engine Aircraft </h1>
<ul>
<li> Cessna skyhawk</li>
<li> Beechcraft Bonaza</li>
<li> piper Cherokee</li>
</ul>
</body>
</html>

<html>
<head>
<title> Table with text and image </title>
</head>
<body>
<table border = "border">
<caption>VTU Memo </caption>
<tr>
<th> VTU </th>
<th> Image </th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> Funny image </td>
<td> <img src = "img(13).jpg" alt = "cant display"/></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> True Story </td>
<td> <img src = "img(19).jpg" alt = "cant display"/></td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>

<html>
<head>
<title>row-span and column-span</title>
</head>
<body>
<p> Illustration of Row span</p>
<table border="border">
<tr>
<th rowspan="2"> ATME</th>
<th>ISE</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>CSE</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p> Illustration of Column span</p>
<table border="border">
<tr>
<th colspan="2"> ATME </th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ISE</th>
<th>CSE</th>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>

<html>
<head>
<title> Align and valign </title>
</head>
<body>
<p>Table having entries with different alignments</p>
<table border="border">
<tr align = "center">
<th> </th>
<th> Column Label </th>
<th> Another One </th>
<th> Still Another </th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th> Align </th>
<td align = "left"> Left</td>
<td align = "center"> Center </td>
<td align = "right"> right </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th> <br/>Valign<br/><br/><br/></th>
<td> Deafult </td>
<td valign = "top"> Top</td>
<td valign = "bottom"> Bottom</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>

<html>
<head>
<title> cell spacing and cell padding </title>
</head>
<body>
<h3>Table with space = 10, pad = 50</h3>
<table border = "7" cellspacing = "10" cellpadding = "50">
<tr>
<td> Kswamy</td>
<td>Chethan </td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3>Table with space = 50, pad = 10</h3>
<table border = "7" cellspacing = "50" cellpadding = "10">
<tr>
<td> Divya </td>
<td>Chethan </td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>

• It is a type of input which takes the text.
• Any type of input can be created using <input>
• The type attribute indicates what type of input is needed for the text box, the value should be given as text.
• For any type of input, a name has to be provided which is done using name attribute.
• The size of the text can be controlled using size attribute.
• Every browser has a limit on the number of characters it can collect. If this limit is exceeded, the extra characters are chopped off. To prevent this chopping, maxlength attribute can be used. When maxlength is used, users can enter only those many characters that is given as a value to the attribute.

<html>
<head>
<title>Text Box</title>
</head>
<body>
<form action = " ">
<p> <label>Enter your Name:
<input type = "text" name = "myname" size = "20" maxlength = "20" />
</label> </p>
</form>
</body>
</html>

• If the contents of a text box should not be displayed when they are entered by the user, a password control can be used.
• In this case, regardless of what characters are typed into the password control, only bullets or asterisks are displayed by the browser.

<html>
<head>
<title>Password Box</title>
</head>
<body>
<form action = " ">
<p> <label>Enter the email id:
<input type = "text" name = "myname" size = "24" maxlength = "25" /> </label> </p>
<p> <label>Enter the password:
<input type = "password" name = "mypass" size = "20" maxlength = "20" />
</label> </p>
</form>
</body>
</html>

• Radio buttons are special type of buttons which allows the user to select only individual option
• Radio buttons are created using the input tag with the type attribute having the value radio.
• When radio buttons are created, values must be provided with the help of value attribute.
• All the radio buttons which are created would have same name. This is because the radio buttons are group elements.
• If one of the radio buttons has to be selected as soon as the web page is loaded, checked attribute should be used. The value also would be checked.

<html>
<head>
<title>Radio Button</title>
</head>
<body>
<h3>Age Category ?</h3>
<form action = " ">
<p>
<label><input type="radio" name="age" value="under20" checked = “checked”/>0-19 </label>
<label><input type="radio" name="age" value="20-35"/>20-35</label>
<label><input type="radio" name="age" value="36-50"/>36-50 </label>
<label><input type="radio" name="age" value=" over50"/>over50</label>
</p>
</form>
</body>
</html>

• Check box is a type of input using which multiple options can be selected.
• Check box can also be created using the <input> tag with the type having the value “checkbox”.
• During the creation of check box, the value should be provided using the value attribute.
• All the checkbox which are created would have the same name because they are group elements.
• If one of the check box have to be selected as soon as the page is loaded, checked attribute should be used with the value checked.

<html>
<head>
<title>Check Box</title>
</head>
<body>
<h3>Grocery Checklist</h3>
<form action = " ">
<p>
<label><input type="checkbox" name="groceries" value="milk" checked=”checked”/>Milk</label>
<label><input type="checkbox" name=" groceries" value="bread"/> Bread </label>
<label><input type="checkbox" name=" groceries" value="eggs"/>Eggs</label>
</p>
</form>
</body>
</html>

• Menu items is another type of input that can be created on the page.
• To create the menu item, <select> tag is used.
• To insert the item in the menu, <option> tag is used.

<html>
<head>
<title> Menu </title>
</head>
<body>
<p> ATME Branches - Information Science, Computer Science, Electronics, Electrical, Mechanical </p>
<form action = "">
<p> With size = 1 (the default)
<select name = "branches">
<option> Information Science </option>
<option> Computer Science </option>
<option> Electronics </option>
<option> Electrical </option>
<option> Mechanical </option>
</select>
</p>
</form>
</body>
</html>

• Text area is a type of input using which multiple statements can be entered.
• Text area is created using <textarea> tag.
• Text area should have the name.
• During the creation of text area, it should be mentioned how many sentences can be entered. This is done using rows attribute.
• Similarly, it should also be mentioned how many characters can be entered in a line. This is done using cols attribute.
• If the value given to rows is exceeded i.e. if users enter sentences more than specified, the scroll bar automatically appears.

<html>
<head>
<title> text area </title>
</head>
<body>
<form action=" ">
<h3> Enter your comments</h3>
<p>
<textarea name="feedback" rows="5" cols="100">
(Be Brief and concise)
</textarea>
</p>
</form>
</body>
</html>

<html>
<head>
<title> action buttons </title>
</head>
<body>
<form action=" ">
<p>
<input type="SUBMIT" value="SUBMIT"/>
<input type="RESET" value="RESET"/>
</p>
</form>
</body>
</html>

<html>
<head>
<title> CompleteForm</title>
</head> <body>
<h1>Registration Form</h1>
<form action=" ">
<p> <label>Enter your email id:
<input type = "text" name = "myname" size = "24" maxlength = "25" />
</label> </p>
<p> <label>Enter the password:
<input type = "password" name = "mypass" size = "20" maxlength = "20" />
</label> </p>
<p>Sex</p>
<p>
<label><input type="radio" name="act" value="one"/>Male</label>
<label><input type="radio" name="act" value="two"/>Female</label>
</p>
<p>Which of the following Accounts do you have?</p>
<p>
<label><input type="checkbox" name="act" value="one"/>Gmail</label>
<label><input type="checkbox" name="act" value="two"/>Facebook</label>
<label><input type="checkbox" name="act" value="three"/>Twitter</label>
<label><input type="checkbox" name="act" value="four"/>Google+</label>
</p>
<p> Any Suggestions?</p>
<p> <textarea name="feedback" rows="5" cols="100"> </textarea> </p>
<p>Click on Submit if you want to register</p>
<p> <input type="SUBMIT" value="SUBMIT"/>
<input type="RESET" value="RESET"/>
</p>
</form>
</body>
</html>

Mnemonic	Number	Special Use
A	0	Accumulator; used for arithmetic operations
X	1	Index register; used for addressing
L	2	Linkage register; JSUB instruction stores the return address in this register
PC	8	Program counter; contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched for execution.
SW	9	Status word; contains a variety of information, including a Condition Code (CC)

8	       1	           15
opcode	       x	           Address

Mode	Indication	Target Address Calculation
Direct	x=0	TA= address
Indexed	x=1	TA= address + (X)

 Example: LDA     TEN		LDA – 00
 opcode	  x	                                 TEN
 0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0	  0	        0 0 1    0 0 0 0    0 0 0 0    0 0 0 0
 Effective Address (EA) = 1000
 Content of the address 1000 is loaded to Accumulator.
 
 

 
 opcode	  x	                          BUFFER
 0 0 0 0   0 1 0 0	  1	        0 0 1    0 0 0 0    0 0 0 0    0 0 0 0

o45	001A	ENDFIL	LDA	=C’EOF’    032010
o215	1062	WLOOP	TD	=X’05’	   E32011 

Program relocation

Ø The actual starting address of the program is not known until load time

Ø An object program that contains the information necessary to perform this kind of modification is called a relocatable program

Ø No modification is needed: operand is using program-counter relative or base relative addressing

Ø The only parts of the program that require modification at load time are those that specified direct (as opposed to relative) addresses

Ø Modification record

        o Col. 2-7 Starting location of the address field to be modified, relative to the           beginning of the program (Hex)

Col. 8-9  Length of the address field to be modified, in half-bytes (Hex)

Sometimes it is required to load and run several programs at the same time. The system must be able to load these programs wherever there is place in the memory. Therefore the exact starting is not known until the load time.

Absolute Program

In this the address is mentioned during assembling itself. This is called Absolute Assembly.

Consider the instruction:

55101B  LDA   THREE    00102D

· This statement says that the register A is loaded with the value stored at location 102D. Suppose it is decided to load and execute the program at location 2000 instead of location 1000.

· Then at address 102D the required value which needs to be loaded in the register A is no more available. The address also gets changed relative to the displacement

of the program. Hence we need to make some changes in the address portion of the instruction so that we can load and execute the program at location 2000.

· Apart from the instruction which will undergo a change in their operand address value as the program load address changes. There exist some parts in the program which will remain same regardless of where the program is being loaded.

· Since assembler will not know actual location where the program will get loaded, it cannot make the necessary changes in the addresses used in the program. However, the assembler identifies for the loader those parts of the program which need modification.

· An object program that has the information necessary to perform this kind of modification is called the relocatable program.

 The Algorithm for Pass 1:

The Algorithm for Pass 2:

The operation of absolute loader is very simple. The object code is loaded to specified locations in the memory. At the end the loader jumps to the specified address to begin execution of the loaded program. The role of absolute loader is as shown in the figure 4.4.

The advantage of absolute loader is simple and efficient. But the disadvantages are, the need for programmer to specify the actual address, and, difficult to use subroutine libraries.

The algorithm for this type of loader is given here. The object program and, the object program loaded into memory by the absolute loader are also shown. Each byte of assembled code is given using its hexadecimal representation in character form. Easy to read by human beings. Each byte of object code is stored as a single byte. Most machine store object programs in a binary form, and we must be sure that our file and device conventions do not cause some of the program bytes to be interpreted as control characters.

Begin

read Header record

verify program name and length

read first Text record

while record type is <> ‘E’ do

begin

{if object code is in character form, convert into internal representation} move object code to specified location in memory read next object program record

end

jump to address specified in End record

end

Pass 1:

Begin

get PROOADDR from operating system

set CSADDR to PROOADDR {for first control section}

while not end of input do

begin

read next input record {Header record for control section}

set CSLTH to control section length

search ESTAB for control section name

if found then

set error flag {duplicate external symbol}

else

enter control section name into ESTAB with value CSADDR

while record type ~ 'E' do

begin

read next input record

if record type = 'D' then

for each symbol in the record do

begin

search ESTAB for symbol name

if found then

set error flag (duplicate external symbol)

else

enter symbol into ESTAB with value(CSADDR + indicated address)

end {for}

end {while ~ 'E'}

add CSLTH to CSADDR {starting address for next control section}

end {while not EOF}

end {Pass 1}

 1) Lexical Analyzer

— The first phase of compiler is lexical analyzer it reads stream of characters in the source program

— Groups the characters into meaningful sequences – lexemes

— For each lexeme, a token is produced as output

—  <token-name , attribute-value>

Token-name : symbol used during syntax analysis

Attribute-value : an entry in the symbol table for this token

— Information from symbol table is needed for syntax analysis and code generation

— Consider the following assignment statement 

2) Syntax Analysis

The second phase of compiler is  syntax analysis  is also  called Parsing

— Parser uses the tokens to create a tree-like intermediate representation

— Depicts the grammatical structure of the token stream

— Syntax tree is one such representation

                                 Interior node – operation

                                 Children  - arguments of the operation

Other phases use this syntax tree to help analyze source program and generate target program

3) Semantic Analysis

The third phase of compiler is Semantic Analyzer

— Checks semantic consistency with language using:

                               Syntax tree  and Information in symbol table

— Gathers type information and save in syntax tree or symbol table

— Type Checks each operator for matching operands

                               Ex: Report error if floating point number is used as index of an array

— Coercions or type conversions

                         Binary arithmetic operator applied to a pair of integers or floating point numbers

                           If applied to floating point and integer, compiler may convert integer to floating-

                            point number

4) Intermediate Code Generation

     After syntax and semantic analysis  Intermediate Code Generation is the fourth  phase of compiler

— Compilers generate machine-like intermediate representation

— This intermediate representation should have the two properties:

                         Should be easy to produce

                         Should be easy to translate into target machine

             Three-address code

— Sequence of assembly-like instructions with three operands per instruction

— Each operand acts like a register

                        Points to be noted about three-address instructions are:

— Each assignment instruction has at most one operator on the right side

— Compiler must generate a temporary name to hold the value computed by a three-address instruction

— Some instructions have fewer than three operands

5) Code Optimization

            Attempt to improve the target code

— Faster code, shorter code or target code that consumes less power

                        Optimizer can deduce that

— Conversion of 60 from int to float can be done once  at compile time

— So, the inttofloat can be eliminated by replacing 60 with 60.0

— t3 is used only once to transmit its value to id1

6) Code Generation

— Takes intermediate representation as input

— Maps it into target language

— If target language is machine code

                        Registers or memory locations are selected for each of the variables used

                        Intermediate instructions are translated into sequences of machine instructions

                        performing the same task

— Assignment of registers to hold variables is a crucial aspect

#include<iostream>
 using namespace std;

 int area(int x)
 {
     return x*x; 
} 

int area(int l, int b) 
{
     return l*b;
 }

 double area(double r)
 {
     return 3.142*r*r;
 }

 int main()
 {
     int x, l, b;
     double r;
     cout<<"Enter the length of a square: ";
     cin>>x;
     cout<<"Enter the length of rectangle: ";
     cin>>l;
     cout<<"Enter the width of rectangle: ";
     cin>>b;
     cout<<"Enter the radius of circle: ";
     cin>>r;
     cout<<endl<<"The area of square is "<<area(x)<<endl;
     cout<<endl<<"The area of rectangle is "<<area(l, b)<<endl;
     cout<<endl<<"The area of circle is "<<area(r)<<endl;
 }

#include<iostream>
 using namespace std;

 class addtwonumbers
 {
     int x, y;
     public:
         addtwonumbers()
         {
             x = 0;
             y = 0;
         }
         addtwonumbers(int a, int b)
         {
             x = a;
             y = b;
         }
         friend int add(addtwonumbers &obj);
 };

 int add(addtwonumbers &obj)
 {
     return (obj.x+ obj.y);
 }

 int main()
 {
     addtwonumbers a1;
     cout<<"Sum is: "<<add(a1)<<endl;
     addtwonumbers a2(10, 20); 
     cout<<"Sum is: "<<add(a2)<<endl;
 }

 #include<iostream>
 using namespace std;
 class counter
 {
     private:
         static int count;
     public:
         counter()
         {
             count++;
         }
     void display()
     {
         cout<<"The number of objects created are: "<<count;
     }
 };
 int counter::count=0;
 int main()
 {
     counter c1;
     counter c2;
     counter c3;
     c2.display();
 }

 #include<iostream>
 using namespace std;
 inline int max(int x, int y)
 {
     if (x>y)
         return x;
     else 
         return y;
 }
 int main()
 {
     int a, b;
     cout<<"Enter the first number: ";
     cin>>a;
     cout<<"Enter the second number: ";
     cin>>b;
     cout<<"The maximum number is "<<max(a,b);
 }

#include <iostream>

Using namespace std;

int main( )

{

cout << “Hello C++” <<endl;

return 0;

}

#include<iostream>
 using namespace std;
 class areaRect
 {
     private:
         int h, w;
     public:
     areaRect()
     {
         h = 0;
         w = 0;
     }
     int area()
    {
     cout<<"Enter the height of rectangle: ";
     cin>>h;
     cout<<"Enter the width of the rectangle: ";
     cin>>w;
     return h*w;
   }
 };
 int main()
 {
     int result;
     areaRect a1;
     result = a1.area();
     cout <<endl<<"Area of Rectangle is: "<<result;
 }

#include<iostream>
 using namespace std;
 class areaRect
 {
     private:  int h, w;
     public:
     areaRect()
     {
         h = 0;
         w = 0;
     }
     areaRect(int x, int y)
     {
         h = x;
         w = y;
     }
     int area()
     {
         return h*w;
     }
 };
 int main()
 {
     int result;
     areaRect a1;
     result = a1.area();
     cout <<endl<<"Area of Rectangle is: "<<result;
     areaRect a2(10, 20);
    result = a2.area();
    cout <<endl<<"Area of Rectangle is: "<<result;
 }    

#include<iostream>
 using namespace std;
 class areaRect
 {
     private:  int h, w;
     public:
     areaRect()
     {
         h = 10;
         w = 10;
     }
     areaRect(areaRect &obj)
     {
         h = obj.h;
         w = obj.w;
     }
     int area()
     {
         return h*w;
     }
 };
 int main()
 {
     int result;
     areaRect a1;
     result = a1.area();
     cout <<endl<<"Area of Rectangle is: "<<result;
   areaRect a2(a1);
    result = a2.area(); 
    cout <<endl<<"Area of Rectangle is: "<<result;
 }    

#include<iostream>
 using namespace std;
 class test
 {
     private:   
        int val;
     public: explicit test(int x)
    {
     val = x;
  }
  void display()
  {
        cout <<"The value of val is "<<val;
   }
 };
 int main()
 {
     test t1=10;
     t1.display();
 }

#include<iostream>
 using namespace std;
 class Employee
 {
     private:
     int empid[3];
     int empsal[3];
     public:
     void read_data();
     void print_data();  
 };
 void Employee::read_data()
 {
     for (int i=0; i<3;i++)     
    {         
         cout<<"Enter the Employee ID. ";         
         cin>>empid[i];
         cout<<"Enter the Employee salary. ";         
         cin>>empsal[i];
     }
 }
 void Employee::print_data()
 {
     for (int i=0; i<3;i++)
     {
         cout<<empid[i]<<"\t"<<empsal[i]<<endl;
     }
 }
 int main()
 {
     Employee emp;
     emp.read_data();
     cout<<endl<<"Employee Information is: "<<endl;
     cout<<"EmpID\tEMP Salary"<<endl;
     emp.print_data();
 }

<!-->html code<-->
<body>
	<div class="fixed">This div has <span>position: fixed;</span></div>
	<pre>
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			Nunc eget mauris at urna hendrerit iaculis sit amet et ipsum.
			Maecenas nec mi eget leo malesuada vehicula.
			Nam eget velit maximus, elementum ante pretium, aliquet felis.
			Aliquam quis turpis laoreet, porttitor lacus at, posuere massa.
	</pre>
</body>

// css code
body
{
	margin: 0;
	padding: 20px;
	font-family: sans-serif;
	background: #efefef;
}

.fixed
{
	position: fixed;
	background: #cc0000;
	color: #ffffff;
	padding: 30px;
	top: 50;
	left: 10;
}

span
{
	padding: 5px;
	border: 1px #ffffff dotted;
}

<!-->html code<-->
<body>
	<div class="static">This div has <span>position: static;</span></div>
	<pre>
			Lorem ipsum dolor sits amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.
			Nunc eget mauris at urna hendrerit iaculis sit amet et ipsum.
			Maecenas nec mi eget leo malesuada vehicula.
			Nam eget velit maximus, elementum ante pretium, aliquet felis.
			Aliquam quis turpis laoreet, porttitor lacus at, posuere massa.
	</pre>
</body>

// css code
body
{
	margin: 0;
	padding: 20px;
	font-family: sans-serif;
	background: #efefef;
}

.static
{
	position: static;
	background: #cc0000;
	color: #ffffff;
	padding: 30px;
}

span
{
	padding: 5px;
	border: 1px #ffffff dotted;
}

<!-->html code<-->
<body>
	<div class="relative">This div has
		<span>position: relative;</span></div>
	<pre>
			Lorem ipsum dolor sits amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.
			Nunc eget mauris at urna hendrerit iaculis sit amet et ipsum.
			Maecenas nec mi eget leo malesuada vehicula.
			Nam eget velit maximus, elementum ante pretium, aliquet felis.
			Aliquam quis turpis laoreet, porttitor lacus at, posuere massa.
	</pre>
</body>

// css code
body
{
	margin: 0;
	padding: 20px;
	font-family: sans-serif;
	background: #efefef;
}

.relative
{
	position: relative;
	background: #cc0000;
	color: #ffffff;
	padding: 30px;
}

span
{
	padding: 5px;
	border: 1px #ffffff dotted;
}

<!-->html code<-->
<body>
	<pre>
		Lorem ipsum dolor sits amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.
		Nunc eget mauris at urna hendrerit iaculis sit amet et ipsum.
		Maecenas nec mi eget leo malesuada vehicula.
		<div class="relative">
			<p>This div has <span><strong>position: relative;</strong>
														</span></p>
			<div class="absolute">
			This div has <span><strong>position:
							absolute;</strong></span>
			</div>
		</div>
		Nam eget velit maximus, elementum ante pretium, aliquet felis.
		Aliquam quis turpis laoreet, porttitor lacus at, posuere massa.
	</pre>
</body>

// css code
body
{
	margin: 0;
	padding: 20px;
	font-family: sans-serif;
	background: #efefef;
}

.absolute
{
	position: absolute ;
	background: #cc0000;
	color: #ffffff;
	padding: 30px;
	font-size: 15px;
	bottom: 20px;
	right: 20px;
}

.relative
{
	position: relative;
	background: #aad000;
	height: 300px;
	font-size: 30px;
	border: 1px solid #121212;
	text-align: center;
}

span
{
	padding: 5px;
	border: 1px #ffffff dotted;
}

pre
{
	padding: 20px;
	border: 1px solid #000000;
}

<!-->html code<-->
<body>
     <pre>
        Lorem ipsum dolor sits amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.
        Nunc eget mauris at urna hendrerit iaculis sit amet et ipsum.
        Maecenas nec mi eget leo malesuada vehicula.
                <div class="sticky">
                     This div has <span>position: sticky;</span>
                </div>
        Nam eget velit maximus, elementum ante pretium, aliquet felis.
        Aliquam quis turpis laoreet, porttitor lacus at, posuere massa.
     </pre>
</body>

// css code
body
{
    margin: 0;
    padding: 20px;
    font-family: sans-serif;
    background: #efefef;
}
  
.sticky
{
    position: sticky;
    background: #cc0000;
    color: #ffffff;
    padding: 30px;
        top: 10px;
        right: 50px;
}
  
span
{
    padding: 5px;
    border: 1px #ffffff dotted;
}
  
pre
{
       padding: 20px;
       border: 1px solid #000000;
}

<token-name, attribute-value> 

How Pleasant Is The Weather?

 HowPl easantIs Th ewe ather?

1. "Get next token" is a command which is sent from the parser to the lexical analyzer.
2. On receiving this command, the lexical analyzer scans the input until it finds the next token.
3. It returns the token to Parser.

• Helps to identify token into the symbol table
• Removes white spaces and comments from the source program
• Correlates error messages with the source program
• Helps you to expands the macros if it is found in the source program
• Read input characters from the source program

#include <stdio.h>
    int maximum(int x, int y) {
        // This will compare 2 numbers
        if (x > y)
            return x;
        else {
            return y;
        }
    }

Examples of Nontokens

• One Buffer Scheme: In this scheme, only one buffer is used to store the input string but the problem with this scheme is that if lexeme is very long then it crosses the buffer boundary, to scan rest of the lexeme the buffer has to be refilled, that makes overwriting the first of lexeme.
• Two Buffer Scheme: To overcome the problem of one buffer scheme, in this method two buffers are used to store the input string. the first buffer and second buffer are scanned alternately. when end of current buffer is reached the other buffer is filled. the only problem with this method is that if length of the lexeme is longer than length of the buffer then scanning input cannot be scanned completely. Initially both the bp and fp are pointing to the first character of first buffer. Then the fp moves towards right in search of end of lexeme. as soon as blank character is recognized, the string between bp and fp is identified as corresponding token. to identify, the boundary of first buffer end of buffer character should be placed at the end first buffer. Similarly end of second buffer is also recognized by the end of buffer mark present at the end of second buffer. when fp encounters first eof, then one can recognize end of first buffer and hence filling up second buffer is started. in the same way when second eof is obtained then it indicates of second buffer. alternatively both the buffers can be filled up until end of the input program and stream of tokens is identified. This eof character introduced at the end is calling Sentinel which is used to identify the end of buffer.

• detailed billing;
• monitoring;
• log access;
• security;
• load balancing;
• clustering; and
• storage resiliency, such as backup, replication and recovery.

• Networking. When focusing on cloud deployments, organizations need to ask certain questions to make sure that the provisioned infrastructure in the cloud can be accessed in an efficient manner.
• Storage. Organizations should consider requirements for storage types, required storage performance levels, possible space needed, provisioning and potential options such as object storage.
• Compute. Organizations should consider the implications of different server, VM, CPU and memory options that cloud providers can offer.
• Security. Data security should be of paramount importance when evaluating cloud services and providers. Questions about data encryption, certifications, compliance and regulation, and secure workloads should be pursued in detail.
• Disaster recovery. Disaster recovery features and options are another key value area for organizations in the event of failover on VM, server or site levels.
• Server Size. Options for server and VM sizes, how many CPUs can be placed onto servers, and other CPU and memory details.
• Throughput of the network. Speed between VMs, data centers, storage, and internet.
• General manageability. How many features of the IaaS can the user control, which parts do you need to control and how easy are they to control and manage?

HTML table tag is used to display data in tabular form (row * column). There can be many columns in a row.

We can create a table to display data in tabular form, using <table> element, with the help of <tr> , <td>, and <th> elements.

In Each table, table row is defined by <tr> tag, table header is defined by <th>, and table data is defined by <td> tags.

HTML tables are used to manage the layout of the page e.g. header section, navigation bar, body content, footer section etc. But it is recommended to use div tag over table to manage the layout of the page .

The rowspan and colspan are <td> tag attributes. These are used to specify the number of rows or columns a cell should span. The rowspan attribute is for rows as well as the colspan attribute is for columns.

• Row Span This attribute specifies the no. of rows a cell should span.

 Syntax:-  <td rowspan="number">

where 'number' specifies the no. of rows a cell should span.

•  Col Span :- This attribute defines the no. of Columns a cell should span.

 Syntax:-  <td colspan="number">

where 'number' specifies the no. of column a cell should span.

Basic Table Structure

At their most basic, tables are made up cells, arranged into rows. You can control display characteristics for the whole table, for individual rows, and for individual cells.

<table border="1px" style="width:300px">
  <thead>
    <tr>
      <th>First Name</th>
      <th>Last Name</th>
      <th>Age</th>
    </tr>
  </thead>
  <tbody>
    <tr>
      <td>Jill</td>
      <td>Smith</td>       
      <td>50</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>Eve</td>
      <td>Jackson</td>     
      <td>94</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
      <td>John</td>
      <td>Doe</td>     
      <td>80</td>
    </tr>
  </tbody>
</table>

(1) Kinds of cell in HTML

A table cell in HTML is a non-empty element and should always be closed. There are two different kinds of table cell in HTML: normal table cell and header cell. <td> denotes a table cell, the name implying 'data', while <th> denotes a table 'header'. The two can be used interchangeably, but it is recommended that header cell be only used for the top and side headers of a table.

Syntax:-

A table cell also must be nested within a <table> tag and a <tr> (table row) tag. If there are more table cell tags in any given row than in any other, the particular <tr> must be given a colspan attribute declaring how many columns of cells wide it should be.

Example:-

An example of an HTML table containing 4 cells:

(2) Data Type

A data type must be specified for each column & for each attributes compromising on abstract data type. They are classifieed broadly as pre-defined data type.

<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<body>

<table border="1" cellspacing="0">

<tr>

<th rowspan="2"> One</th>

<th colspan="2">Two</th>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Three</td>

<td>Four</td>

</tr>

</table>

</body>

</html>

 output:-

The position property specifies the type of positioning method used for an element.

There are five different position values:

1. Fixed
2. Static
3. Relative
4. Absolute
5. Sticky

• Static :- 

  HTML elements are positioned static by default.

  Static positioned elements are not affected by the top, bottom, left, and right properties.

  An element with position: static; is not positioned in any special way; it is always positioned according to the normal flow of the page:

  This <div> element has position: static;

  Here is the CSS that is used:

  div.static {
    position: static;
    border: 3px solid #73AD21;
  }

• position: relative;

  An element with position: relative; is positioned relative to its normal position.

  Setting the top, right, bottom, and left properties of a relatively-positioned element will cause it to be adjusted away from its normal position.

• position: fixed;

  It is positioned relative to the viewport, which means it always stays in the same place even if the page is scrolled. The top, right, bottom, and left properties are used to position the element.

• position: absolute;

  position: absolute; is positioned relative to the nearest positioned ancestor. However; if an absolute positioned element has no positioned ancestors, it uses the document body, and moves along with page scrolling.

• position: sticky;

  position: sticky;  it's positioned based on the user's scroll position.

  A sticky element toggles between relative and fixed, depending on the scroll position. It is positioned relative until a given offset position is met in the viewport - then it "sticks" in place

The float CSS property places an element on the left or right side of its container, allowing text and inline elements to wrap around it. The element is removed from the normal flow of the page, though still remaining a part of the flow.

We can float an element by using the float property:-

(1) left :- The element must float on the left side of its containing block.

(2) right:- The element must float on the right side of its containing block.

(3) none :- The element must not float.

(4) inherit :- The element inherits the flow value of its parent.

How Elements Float

A floated element is taken out of the normal flow and shifted to the left or right as far as possible in the space available of the containing element.

Radio button: It is generally used in HTML forms. HTML forms are required when you need to collect some data from the site visitors. A radio button is used when you want to select only one option out of several available options.

Checkbox: Checkboxes are also mostly used in HTML forms. A checkbox allows you to choose one or many options to be selected from a list of options.

Difference between radio button and checkbox

In HTML <input type=" "> is an important element of HTML form. The "type" attribute of input element can be various types, which defines information field. Such as <input type="text" name="name"> gives a text box.

1. <input type="text">:

<input> element of type "text" are used to define a single-line input text field.

2. <input type="password">:

The <input> element of type "password" allow a user to enter the password securely in a webpage. The entered text in password filed converted into "*" or ".", so that it cannot be read by another user.

<form>
    <label>Enter Password</label><br>  
    <input type="Password" name="password">
</form>

3. <input type="submit">:

The <input> element of type "submit" defines a submit button to submit the form to the server when the "click" event occurs.

4. <input type="radio">:

The <input> type "radio" defines the radio buttons, which allow choosing an option between a set of related options. At a time only one radio button option can be selected at a time.

<form>  

  <p>Kindly Select your favorite color</p>  

  <input type="radio" name="color" value="red"> Red <br>  

  <input type="radio" name="color" value="blue"> blue <br>  

  <input type="radio" name="color" value="green">green <br>  

  <input type="radio" name="color" value="pink">pink <br>  

  <input type="submit" value="submit">  

</form>  

5. <input type="checkbox">:

The <input> type "checkbox" are displayed as square boxes which can be checked or unchecked to select the choices from the given options.

6. <input type="button">:

The <input> type "button" defines a simple push button, which can be programmed to control a functionally on any event such as, click event.

7. <input type="email">:

The <input> type "email" creates an input filed which allow a user to enter the e-mail address with pattern validation. The multiple attributes allow a user to enter more than one email address.

<form>  
         <label>Enter your Email address</label>  
        <input type="email" name="email" required>  
        <input type="submit">
</form>     

The Display and visibility property specifies whether or not an element is visible.

The visibility property

The initial value of the visibility property is visible, simply meaning that the element is visible unless you change it . 

example:

→ Three boxes but the middle one has been made invisible by setting the visibility property to hidden. If you try the example, you will notice one very important thing: While the second box is not there, it does leave a pretty big hole in the page. Or in other words: The element can't be seen, but the browser still reserves the space for it! 

The display property

If you try the examples, you'll immediately notice the difference: The second box has vanished without a trace, when we used the none value for the display property.

Example:-

 The property for doing so is in fact the display property, and while it is used a lot for hiding elements, it is also used for a range of other things - for instance to shift an element between the inline and block type.

In fact, if you have hidden an element by setting display to none, the way to get it back will often be to set display to either inline or block.

Translation

• A translation moves all points in an object along the same straight -line path to new positions .

• The path is represented by a vector, called the translation or shift vector.

• We can write the components:
  p'_x = p_x + t_x
  p'_y = p_y + t_y

• or in matrix form:
  P' = P + T     
  

Example:-

A(2,2), F(10,2), C(5,5), Translate the triangle with dx=5 , dy=6

⇒ P1=P+T

Code For OPENGL :- 

Output :

Machine-Dependent Loader Features

Absolute loader is simple and efficient, but the scheme has potential disadvantages One of the most disadvantage is the programmer has to specify the actual starting address, from where the program to be loaded. This does not create difficulty, if one program to run, but not for several programs. Further it is difficult to use subroutine libraries efficiently.

This needs the design and implementation of a more complex loader. The loader must provide program relocation and linking, as well as simple loading functions.

Relocation

The concept of program relocation is, the execution of the object program using any part of the available and sufficient memory. The object program is loaded into memory wherever there is room for it. The actual starting address of the object program is not known until load time. Relocation provides the efficient sharing of the machine with larger memory and when several independent programs are to be run together. It also supports the use of subroutine libraries efficiently. Loaders that allow for program relocation are called relocating loaders or relative loaders.

Methods for specifying relocation

Use of modification record and, use of relocation bit, are the methods available for specifying relocation. In the case of modification record, a modification record M is used in the object program to specify any relocation. In the case of use of relocation bit, each instruction is associated with one relocation bit and, these relocation bits in a Text record is gathered into bit masks.

Modification records are used in complex machines and is also called Relocation and Linkage Directory (RLD) specification. The format of the modification record (M) is as follows. The object program with relocation by Modification records is also shown here.

Modification record

HΛCOPY Λ000000 001077

TΛ000000 Λ1DΛ17202DΛ69202DΛ48101036Λ…Λ4B105DΛ3F2FECΛ032010

TΛ00001DΛ13Λ0F2016Λ010003Λ0F200DΛ4B10105DΛ3E2003Λ454F46

TΛ001035 Λ1DΛB410ΛB400ΛB440Λ75101000Λ…Λ332008Λ57C003ΛB850

TΛ001053Λ1DΛ3B2FEAΛ134000Λ4F0000ΛF1Λ..Λ53C003ΛDF2008ΛB850

TΛ00070Λ07Λ3B2FEFΛ4F0000Λ05

MΛ000007Λ05+COPY

MΛ000014Λ05+COPY

MΛ000027Λ05+COPY

EΛ000000

The relocation bit method is used for simple machines. Relocation bit is 0: no modification is necessary, and is 1: modification is needed. This is specified in the columns 10-12 of text record (T), the format of text record, along with relocation bits is as follows.

Text record

col 1: T

col 2-7: starting address

col 8-9: length (byte)

col 10-12: relocation bits

col 13-72: object code

Twelve-bit mask is used in each Text record (col:10-12 – relocation bits), since each text record contains less than 12 words, unused words are set to 0, and, any value that is to be

modified during relocation must coincide with one of these 3-byte segments. For absolute loader, there are no relocation bits column 10-69 contains object code. The object program with relocation by bit mask is as shown below. Observe FFC - means all ten words are to be modified and, E00 - means first three records are to be modified.

H_ΛCOPY _Λ000000 00107A

T_Λ000000_Λ1E_ΛFFC_Λ140033_Λ481039_Λ000036_Λ280030_Λ300015_Λ…_Λ3C0003 _Λ …

T_Λ00001E_Λ15_ΛE00_Λ0C0036_Λ481061_Λ080033_Λ4C0000_Λ…_Λ000003_Λ000000

T_Λ001039_Λ1E_ΛFFC_Λ040030_Λ000030_Λ…_Λ30103F_ΛD8105D_Λ280030_Λ...

T_Λ001057_Λ0A_Λ800_Λ100036_Λ4C0000_ΛF1_Λ001000

T_Λ001061_Λ19_ΛFE0_Λ040030_ΛE01079_Λ…_Λ508039_ΛDC1079_Λ2C0036_Λ...

E_Λ000000

 Program Linking

The Goal of program linking is to resolve the problems with external references (EXTREF) and external definitions (EXTDEF) from different control sections.

EXTDEF (external definition) - The EXTDEF statement in a control section names symbols, called external symbols, that are defined in this (present) control section and may be used by other sections.

ex: EXTDEF BUFFER, BUFFEND, LENGTH

EXTDEF LISTA, ENDA

EXTREF (external reference) - The EXTREF statement names symbols used in this (present) control section and are defined elsewhere.

ex: EXTREF RDREC, WRREC EXTREF LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC

The compilation process is a sequence of various phases. Each phase takes input from the previous, and passes the output on to the next phase.

LEXICAL ANALYSIS

The first phase of compiler works as a text scanner. The lexical analyzer scans the source code as a stream of characters and converts it into meaningful lexemes of the form .

SYNTAX ANALYSIS

It takes the token produced by lexical analysis as input and generates a parse tree (or syntax tree). Token arrangements are checked against the source code grammar.

SEMANTIC ANALYSIS

Checks whether the parse tree constructed follows the rules of language. E.g. assignment of values is between compatible data types, and adding string to an integer. It keeps track of identifiers, their types and expressions. It produces an annotated syntax tree as an output.

INTERMEDIATE CODE GENERATION

After semantic analysis the compiler generates an intermediate code of the source code for the target machine. It represents a program for some abstract machine. It is generated in such a way that it makes it easier to be translated into the target machine code.

CODE OPTIMIZATION

Optimization can be assumed as something that removes unnecessary code lines, and arranges the sequence of statements in order to speed up the program execution without wasting resources. CODE GENERATION This phase takes the optimized representation of the intermediate code and maps it to the target machine language (sequence of re-locatable machine code).

A compiler scans the entire program and translates it as a whole into relocatable machine code. It takes large amount of time to analyze the source code but the overall execution time is comparatively faster. It generates intermediate object code which further requires linking, hence requires more memory. It generates the error message only after scanning the whole program. An interpreter translates program one statement at a time. It takes less amount of time to analyze the source code but the overall execution time is slower. No intermediate object code is generated, hence are memory efficient. It continues translating the program until the first error is met, in which case it stops.

A language processing system consists of 4 main units; the preprocessor, the compiler, the assembler, and the linker/loader. The preprocessor collects the source program split into modules and files, expands macros into language statement. The compiler takes modified source program and generates machine language code. The assembler takes the machine language code and converts it into relocatable object code. The linker links pieces of large programs that need to be compiled in pieces. It also resolves external memory references. The loader loads all the executables into memory.

We often have to look one or more characters beyond the next lexeme, before we can be sure that we have the right lexeme.

For example, the symbols '<' or '=' could be the beginning of '<<', '<=', ==', etc.

Hence we need two buffer schemes to handle the large lookahead safely. The buffer pairs consist of a lexeme begin pointer (lbp) and a forward pointer (fp).

The lexeme begin pointer marks the beginning of the current lexeme, and the forward pointer scans ahead until a pattern match is found.

This concept is called Input Buffering.

When using a single buffer scheme, if the end of the current file/block is reached before the expression ends, the lexical analyzer might return an unexpected token.

For example, for input string E = M * C ** 2

When EOF is reached in the middle of the expression, the lexical analyzer emits '*' as a token; reloads the input buffer, emits the next '*' as another token.

Two '*'s are returned instead of '**', hence invalidating the expression.

This drawback is overcome by using two buffer schemes.

When we use two buffers, when the input ends prematurely, the other buffer is loaded with the next file’s contents. Hence, the forward pointer moves to the next file to process the continuing input. The lexical analyzer hence emits '**' as the token.

Transition diagrams depict the actions that take place when a lexical analyzer is called by the parser to get the next token.

We can use a transition diagram to keep track of information about the characters that are seen as the forward pointer scans the input. We do so by moving position to position in the diagrams as the characters are read.

 

There are two ways, you can handle reserved words that look like identifiers:

► Put the reserved words in a symbol table initially, with a field indicating that they’re not ordinary identifiers, and tells what tokens do they represent.

When we find an identifier, a call to installID() places it in the symbol table if it’s not already there, and returns a pointer to the symbol table entry for the lexeme found. Any identifier not in the table is recognized as an 'id’.

► Create separate transition diagrams for each keyword, consisting of states representing the situation the keyword is to be detected.

The diagram consists of states representing each letter in the keyword, and check if the identifier has ended, with proper suffix detection. For e.g. 'then' should not be matched in 'thenextstep'.

A generated analyzer is a software tool that automatically constructs a lexical analyzer from a program in the lex language.

The lex compiler generates a transition table for a finite automaton from the regular expressions in the lex specification.

The lexical analyzer consists of finite automaton simulator that uses the transition table to look for the regular expression patterns in the input buffer.

► Reads characters in the source program and groups them into meaningful sequences called lexemes.

► Produces as output a token of the form <token_name, attribute_value> and passes it to the next phase syntax analysis.

► Token class - The symbol for this token to be used during syntax analysis.

► Attribute points to symbol table entry for this token.

► Role of lexical analyzer

-Remove comments & white spaces

-Macros expansion

-Read input characters from source program & group them into lexemes.

-Produce as output a source of tokens, interact with symbol table.

Two commonly used algorithm :-

1> Odd - Even rule

2>The non - zero winding - number rule.

►1. Odd - Even rule :-

→Also called as odd parity rule or the even-odd rule.
→Draw a line from any position P to a distant point outside the coordinator extents of the closed polyline.
→Then we count the number of line- segments crossing along this line
→If the number of segments crossed by this line is odd, then P is considered to be an interior point, otherwise P is an exterior point.
→We can use this procedure , for example , to fill the interior region between 2 concentric circles or two concentric polygons with a specified colour.

►2. Non Zero Winding - Number rule :-

→This counts the number of times that boundary of an object "winds" around a particular point in the counter clockwise direction termed as winding number.

→Initialize the winding number to 0 and again imagining a line draw from any position P to a distant point beyond the co-ordinate  extent of objects.

→The line we choose must not pass through any end point coordinates.

→As we Move along the line from positions P to the distant point, we count the number of object line segments that cross the reference line in each direction.

→We add 1 to the winding number Every time we interact a segment that crosses the line in the direction from right to left and we subtract 1 very time we interact segment that crosses from left to right.

→If the winding number is non - zero. P is considered to be an interior point, otherwise P is an exterior point.

► We generate displays of filled convex polygons in four steps:

1. Define a fill pattern.
2. Invoke the polygon-fill routine.
3. Activate the polygon-fill feature of OpenGL.
4. Describe the polygons to be filled.

► A polygon fill pattern is displayed up to and including the polygon edges. Thus, there are no boundary lines around the fill region unless we specifically add them to the display.

OpenGL Fill-Pattern Function

➢ To fill the polygon with a pattern in OpenGL, we use a 32 × 32 bit mask.
➢ A value of 1 in the mask indicates that the corresponding pixel is to be set to the current color, and a 0 leaves the value of that frame-buffer position unchanged.
➢ The fill pattern is specified in unsigned bytes using the OpenGL data type Glubyte
                → GLubyte fillPattern [ ] = { 0xff, 0x00, 0xff, 0x00, ... };
➢ The bits must be specified starting with the bottom row of the pattern, and continuing up to the topmost row (32) of the pattern.
➢ This pattern is replicated across the entire area of the display window, starting at the lower-left window corner, and specified polygons are filled where the pattern overlaps those polygons
➢ Once we have set a mask, we can establish it as the current fill pattern with the function
glPolygonStipple (fillPattern);
➢ We need to enable the fill routines before we specify the vertices for the polygons that are to be filled with the current pattern
glEnable (GL_POLYGON_STIPPLE);
➢ Similarly, we turn off pattern filling with
glDisable (GL_POLYGON_STIPPLE);

1. SURVEYING:

It is the art of determining the relative position of points on the earth’s surface by measuring

the horizontal between them. Levelling is the process of determining the position of points in

a vertical plane

Surveying are of two types

1) Geodetic survey: the survey in which the shape of the earth is taken in to account is called

geodetic surveying

2) Plane survey: the survey in which the shape (or) curvature of earth is not taken in to account

is called plane surveying

The scope of surveying and levelling are:

a) To prepare plan and map which help in project implementation (setting out the alignment

for a road or railway track or canal, deciding the location for a dam or airport or harbour)

b) To determine the dimensions and contours of any part of the earth surface

c) To establish boundaries of land

d) To measure the areas and volume of land

e) To select suitable site for an engineering project

f) To conduct engineering survey, topographical survey, military survey, mine survey,

geological survey, archaeological survey, hydro graphic survey, environmental survey etc..

The Knowledge of surveying is essential in many phases for every engineering project such as

buildings, roadways, railways, dams, bridges, tunnels, harbours, mines, water supply and

sanitation, pipe line laying, airports etc..

2. BUILDING MATERIALS:

Any engineering structure requires a wide range of materials known as building materials. The

building materials chosen should have such properties that are safe, economical, eco-friendly

and serviceable for the purpose for which they are used

The building materials can be broadly divided into following categories

a. Traditional materials: stones, timber, bricks, lime, cement, tar, bitumen, mortar, ferrous

and non-ferrous metals etc

b. Alternative building materials: mud blocks, concrete blocks, glass, aluminium, paint,

flyash etc.

c. Composite materials: RCC, fibre reinforced concrete, ferro-cement, composite laminated

doors, asbestos sheets, fibre reinforced glass etc.

3. CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY:

As land cost is going up there is a demand for tall structures in urban areas, while in rural areas

need for low cost construction, one has to develop technology using locally available materials

Construction technology comprises of different techniques of construction for different

materials under site different condition. The study of construction machinery comes under its

purview. The management or organization of men (labour), material, method in relation to site,

money and time is the backbone of construction management. It involves almost every branch

of engineering, commerce and economics, for; its ultimate aim is to ‘achieve the desired

construction in the most economical way. A clear knowledge of following points is necessary

for reliable construction and its management.

a) Money, Materials, Machines, Manpower, Methodologies,

b) Maintenance, Modernization, Monitoring, Motivations,

c) Managements of all types.

4. GEO-TECHNICALENGINEERING (Soil Mechanics):

The load from the structure is to be safely transferred to soil, for this safe bearing capacity of

soil is to be properly assessed. This branch of study in civil engineering is called geotechnical

engineering, which deals with the study of the properties , behaviour and use of earth materials

(soil and rocks) in engineering works

Geotechnical engineering has much wider scope that:

a) It is concerned with the properties of earth materials

b) To investigate the soil and bed rocks below the structure and study the soil structure

interaction

c) To select the type of foundation earth works for particular structure

d) To design foundation of building, dams, retaining walls, bridges, road pavement, railway

lines etc.

e) To design foundation for underground structure like tunnels, power houses etc.

f) To design foundation for machines such as turbines, compressors etc. to transmit vibrations

to foundation soil

g) To study the effect of soil as a medium for blasts during mining, earthquake, landslides and

nuclear explosionsh) They include various types of foundations like shallow foundation, deep foundations. Pile

foundation, well foundation etc.

5. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING :

A building or a bridge or a dam consists of various elements like foundations, columns, beams,

slabs etc. These components are always subjected to forces. Depending upon the materials

available the components of the building should be safely and economically designed. A

structural engineer is involved in such a designing activity

Scope of structural engineering:

a) The structural engineering plays a vital role in planning, designing and building the structure

b) The structural analysis and structural design are the components of structural engineering

c) The structural engineering should take the responsibility about the safety and serviceability

of the structure for its life time

d) The structural engineer should be prepared for to accept the natural calamities like

earthquake, wind, landslide etc. and provide remedial measures

6. HYDRAULICS ENGINEERING :

Water is an important need for all living beings, study of mechanics of water and its flow

characteristics is another important field in civil engineering and its known as hydraulics

Hydraulics mainly deals with the practical problems of flow of water. The concept of fluid

pressure, fluid statics, and flow pattern helps in engineering to design the structures like dams,

reservoirs, bridges, culverts, sewage system etc. this concept is also used for flow through

pipes, pumps, turbines, hydraulic machines etc. Hydroelectric power generation facilities are

also included under this aspect.

7. WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING :

Water is to be supplied to agricultural fields and for drinking purposes, hence suitable water

resources are to be identified and water is to be stored. Identifying, planning and building water

retaining structures like tanks and dams and carrying stored water to agricultural fields through

irrigation channels is known as water resources and irrigation engineering

Scope of water resources and irrigation engineering:

a) It facilitates to control, regulate and utilize water to serve wide variety of purposes

b) It gives scope for utilization of water in beneficial purpose by providing water supply,

irrigation, hydroelectric power development and navigational improvement

c) Water quality management

d) Scope for recreational use of water resourcese) To protect fish and wild life

f) India being an agricultural country, irrigation will definitely help in the overall development

of our country, citizen and improve the civilization

8. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:

Transportation means the movement of the men and goods from one point to another. It is as

old as civilization

The Transportation system includes road ways, railways, airways and water ways, design,

construction and maintenance of railway lines, signal system are part of the transportation

engineering.

Scope of water resources and transportation engineering:

a) It contributes to the economic, industrial. Social and cultural development of any country

b) To optimise the transportation cost, maintenance and administrative overheads

c) Planning the transport process with respect to survey and analysis of existing condition and

forecasting the future condition

d) It involves accident study for safe and comfort transport system

e) For traffic performance and control

9. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING :

People in every village, town & city need potable water. The water available (surface water &

ground water) may not be fit for direct consumption. In such cases, the water should be purified

and then supplied to the public. For water purification, sedimentation tanks, filter beds, etc.

should be designed. If the treatment plants are for away from the town or city, suitable pipelines

for conveying water & distributing it should also be designed.

In a town or city, a part of the water supplied returns as sewage. This sewage should be

systematically collected and then disposed into the natural environment after providing suitable

treatment. The solid waste that is generated in a town or locality should be systematically

collected and disposed of suitably. Before disposal, segregation of materials should be done so

that any material can be recycled & we can conserve our natural resources.

Scope of environmental engineering:

a) The study of importance of protection and conservation of our environment

b) The proper distribution of water supply with water treatment facility

c) Solution of problems of environment sanitation with waste water treatmentd) The proper disposal of / recycle of waste water and solid waste

e) Adequate drainage of urban, rural and recreational areas

f) Control of air pollution and provide healthy environment to public

Input Specification:

output Specification :

Example 1:

Explanation:

Integers 1 and 3 are co-prime to 4, but 2 is not.

Example 2:

 Explanation:

Integers 1,3,5,7,9,11,13 and 15are co-prime to 16.

Answer are :

User interface design or user interface engineering is the design of user interfaces for machines and software, such as computers, home appliances, mobile devices, and other electronic devices, with the focus on maximizing usability and the user experience.

Benifits of User Interface Design :-

1. Increase customer acquisition and loyalty :-

• A strong user experience gives you a significant competitive edge in attracting and retaining customers. The more aesthetically pleasing and intuitive a solution is, the easiest you build trust with people, and thus, the higher your chances of attracting users, converting them into customers who will want to continue using it, and encourage their contacts to do the same.

2. Maximize revenue generation opportunities :-

• Planning your users’ journey on your platform ensures you identify and optimize all potential opportunities to convert users into buyers. You can perform A/B testing to test what users respond best to and refine the experience continuously to always outperform your best results by tweaking how intuitive the experience is, better plan interactions, and improve calls to action that convert and leads to revenue growth.

3.Optimize resources, development time and costs :-

• Integrating UI/UX design in your development process will highlight and give you the opportunity to address most of the usability issues you’d have encountered during and after the development of your solution. UI/UX designers can anticipate the users’ needs before going to production, and ultimately ensure that the design is both flexible and scalable so that they can grow with users in the future. Adopting a user focused approach with UI/UX design will save you considerable resources, time and money.

4. Get more insights from user engagement :-

• Engagement metrics are very valuable, they give you insights on what your customers find valuable and what makes them buy. By optimizing your platform’s user experience, you set up an experimental environment for your customers to interact your solutions, based on the engagement insights you gather, you are able to accurately measure success on a new level and shape an offering that converts consistently.

5. Reduce troubleshooting and associated costs :-

• Approximately 50% of an enterprise’s engineering budget is spent on resolving easily avoidable errors. These errors are typically incorrect assumptions regarding user behavior, convoluted navigation that results in users getting stuck or lost, and any new features that are unwanted, unnecessary or inaccessible. Ensuring that the user design of your platform is done effectively and efficiently from the beginning will help alleviate any potential headaches in the future.

Batteries are electrochemical cells which converts chemical energy into electrical energy during discharging and charging.

•  Primary batteries: The batteries, which produce electrical energy at the expense of free energy of active materials and produce energy only as long as active materials are present, are called as primary batteries. These are nonrechargeable batteries and are to be discarded after the use. The cell reactions is said to be irreversible. Example: Dry cell. Zn-air battery.
• Secondary batteries: The rechargeable batteries that produce electrical energy at the expense of free energy of active materials are called secondary batteries. These active materials are capable of restoring at respective electrodes on recharge and prepare for discharge once again. The cell reactions is said to be reversible. Example: Lead acid battery, Ni-MH battery, Li ion battery 

Differential Metallic corrosion:

1. When two dissimilar metals are in direct contact with one another and exposed to a corrosive medium, the metal with lower electrode potential becomes anode and suffers from corrosion, whereas the metal with higher electrode potential becomes cathode and protected from corrosion. This type of corrosion is known as differential metal corrosion or galvanic corrosion.
2. The rate of corrosion depends mainly on the difference in the position of the two metals in galvanic series.
3. Higher the difference, faster is the rate of corrosion 

Water line corrosion:

1. It is observed in steel or iron water tank partially filled with water. Part of the tank just below water level is exposed to lower concentration of O2 becomes anodic and undergoes corrosion.
2. Part of the tank above the water line which is exposed to higher concentration of O2 becomes cathodic and protected from the corrosion.
3. More corrosion is observed just below the water line; hence this type is called water line corrosion. 

Nature of corrosion product

Corrosion product is always formation of oxide layer on the surface of the metal. This oxide layer act as protective film. If this product is porous, then rate of corrosion continues If the product is non-porous, rate of corrosion stops. 

Ratio of anodic to cathodic area

When anode is small and cathode is large, all the electrons liberated at anode and are consumed at the cathode. This further intensifies the anodic reaction leading to increase in overall rate of corrosion. When anode is large and cathode is small, all the electrons liberated at anode and are not consumed at the cathode. So rate of corrosion is less.  

Definition: “It is a process of modifying surface properties of metals by the deposition of a layer of another metal or polymer on its surface or by the formation of an oxide film”.

The main technological importance of metal finishing include :-

[1] Imparting the metal surface to higher corrosion resistance.

[2] Providing electrical and thermal conducting surface.

[3] Imparting thermal resistance and hardness.

[4] In the manufacture of electrical and electronic components such as PCB’s, capacitors contacts, etc.

[5] To increase the decorativeness of metal surface. 

Apache Zookeeper is a coordination service for distributed application that enables synchronization across a cluster. Zookeeper in Hadoop can be viewed as centralized repository where distributed applications can put data and get data out of it. It is used to keep the distributed system functioning together as a single unit, using its synchronization, serialization and coordination goals. For simplicity's sake Zookeeper can be thought of as a file system where we have znodes that store data instead of files or directories storing data. Zookeeper is a Hadoop Admin tool used for managing the jobs in the cluster. 

Distributed applications are difficult to coordinate and work with as they are much more error prone due to huge number of machines attached to network. As many machines are involved, race condition and deadlocks are common problems when implementing distributed applications. Race condition occurs when a machine tries to perform two or more operations at a time and this can be taken care by serialization property of ZooKeeper. Deadlocks are when two or more machines try to access same shared resource at the same time. More precisely they try to access each other’s resources which leads to lock of system as none of the system is releasing the resource but waiting for other system to release it. Synchronization in Zookeeper helps to solve the deadlock. Another major issue with distributed application can be partial failure of process, which can lead to inconsistency of data. Zookeeper handles this through atomicity, which means either whole of the process will finish or nothing will persist after failure. Thus Zookeeper is an important part of Hadoop that take care of these small but important issues so that developer can focus more on functionality of the application.

Hadoop ZooKeeper, is a distributed application that follows a simple client-server model where clients are nodes that make use of the service, and servers are nodes that provide the service. Multiple server nodes are collectively called ZooKeeper ensemble. At any given time, one ZooKeeper client is connected to at least one ZooKeeper server. A master node is dynamically chosen in consensus within the ensemble; thus usually, an ensemble of Zookeeper is an odd number so that there is a majority of vote. If the master node fails, another master is chosen in no time and it takes over the previous master. Other than master and slaves there are also observers in Zookeeper. Observers were brought in to address the issue of scaling. With the addition of slaves the write performance is going to be affected as voting process is expensive. So observers are slaves that do not take part into voting process but have similar duties as other slaves.

Writes in Zookeeper

All the writes in Zookeeper go through the Master node, thus it is guaranteed that all writes will be sequential. On performing write operation to the Zookeeper, each server attached to that client persists the data along with master. Thus, this makes all the servers updated about the data. However this also means that concurrent writes cannot be made. Linear writes guarantee can be problematic if Zookeeper is used for write dominant workload. Zookeeper in Hadoop, is ideally used for coordinating message exchanges between clients, which involves less writes and more reads. Zookeeper is helpful till the time the data is shared but if application has concurrent data writing then Zookeeper can come in way of the application and impose strict ordering of operations.

Reads in Zookeeper

Zookeeper is best at reads as reads can be concurrent. Concurrent reads are done as each client is attached to different server and all clients can read from the servers simultaneously, although having concurrent reads leads to eventual consistency as master is not involved. There can be cases where client may have an outdated view, which gets updated with a little delay.

Apache Ambari is an open-source administration tool deployed on top of Hadoop clusters, and it is responsible for keeping track of the running applications and their status. Apache Ambari can be referred to as a web-based management tool that manages, monitors, and provisions the health of Hadoop clusters.

Introduction to Apache Ambari

It provides a highly interactive dashboard that allows administrators to visualize the progress and status of every application running over the Hadoop cluster.

Its flexible and scalable user interface allows a range of tools such as Pig, MapReduce, Hive, etc. to be installed on the cluster and administers their performances in a user-friendly fashion. Some of the key features of this technology can be highlighted as:

• Instantaneous insight into the health of the Hadoop cluster using preconfigured operational metrics
• User-friendly configuration providing an easy step-by-step guide for installation
• Installation of Apache Ambari is possible through Hortonworks Data Platform (HDP)
• Monitoring dependencies and performances by visualizing and analyzing jobs and tasks
• Authentication, authorization, and auditing by installing Kerberos-based Hadoop clusters
• Flexible and adaptive technology fitting perfectly in the enterprise environment

There is a huge difference between tasks performed by these two technologies if looked closely. The following comparison will give you a clearer idea:

Therefore, though these tasks may seem similar from a distance, actually, these two technologies perform different tasks on the same Hadoop cluster making it agile, responsive, scalable, and fault-tolerant in a big way. As an Apache Ambari Administrator, you will be creating and managing Ambari users and groups. You can also import users and groups from LDAP systems into Ambari.

Ambari provides intuitive and REST APIs that automate operations in the Hadoop cluster. Its consistent and secure interface allows it to be fairly efficient in operational control. Its easy and user-friendly interface efficiently diagnoses the health of the Hadoop cluster using an interactive dashboard.

To have a better understanding of how Ambari works, let’s look at the detailed architecture of Apache Ambari in the following diagram:

Apache Ambari follows a master–slave architecture where the master node instructs the slave nodes to perform certain actions and report back the state of every action. The master node is responsible for keeping track of the state of the infrastructure. To do this, the master node uses a database server, which can be configured during the setup time.

• Ambari Server
• Ambari Agent
• Ambari Web UI
• Database

1. Ambari Server

The entry point for all administrative activities on the master server is known as Ambari Server. It is a shell script. Internally, this script uses Python code, ambari-server.py, and routes all requests to it.

Ambari Server consists of several entry points that are available when passed different parameters to the Ambari Server program. They are:

• Daemon management
• Software upgrade
• Software setup
• LDAP (Lightweight Direct Access Protocol)/PAM (Pluggable Authentication Module) /Kerberos management
• Ambari backup and restore
• Miscellaneous options

2. Ambari Agent

Ambari Agent runs on all the nodes that you want to manage with Ambari.  This program periodically sends heartbeats to the master node. By using Ambari Agent, Ambari Server executes many tasks on the servers.

3. Ambari Web User Interface

Ambari Web UI is one of the powerful features of Apache Ambari. The web application is deployed through the server of Ambari program which is running on the master host exposed on port 8080. This application is protected by authentication. You can access and then control and view all aspects of your Hadoop cluster, once you log in to the web portal.

4. Database

Ambari supports multiple RDBMS (Relational Database Management Systems) to keep track of the state of the entire Hadoop infrastructure. You can choose the database you want to use during the setup of Ambari. Ambari supports these following databases at the time of writing:

• PostgreSQL
• Oracle
• MySQL or MariaDB
• Embedded PostgreSQL
• Microsoft SQL Server
• SQL Anywhere
• Berkeley DB

This technology is preferred by the Big Data Developers as it is quite handy and comes with a step-by-step guide allowing easy installation on the Hadoop cluster. Its preconfigured key operational metrics provide a quick look into the health of the Hadoop core, i.e., HDFS and MapReduce, along with the additional components such as Hive, HBase, HCatalog, etc. Ambari sets up a centralized security system by incorporating Kerberos and Apache Ranger into the architecture. The RESTful APIs monitor the information and integrate the operational tools. Its user-friendliness and interactivity have made it enter the list of top 10 open-source technologies for the Hadoop cluster.

This is given with respect to Hortonworks Data Platform (HDP). Ambari eliminates the need for the manual tasks that used to watch over Hadoop operations. It gives a simple and secure platform for provisioning, managing, and monitoring HDP deployments. Ambari is an easy to use Hadoop management UI and is solidly backed by REST APIs. The benefits of using Apache Ambari are mentioned below.

Simplified installation, configuration, and management of the Hadoop cluster: Ambari can efficiently create Hadoop clusters at scale. Its wizard-driven approach lets the configuration be automated as per the environment so that the performance is optimal. Master–slave and client components are assigned to configuring services. It is also used to install, start, and test the cluster.

Configuration blueprints give recommendations to those seeking a hands-on approach. The blueprint of an ideal cluster is stored. How it is provisioned is clearly traced. This is then used to automate the creation of successive clusters without any user interaction. Blueprints also preserve and ensure the application of best practices across different environments.

Ambari provides a rolling upgrade feature where running clusters can be updated on the go with maintenance releases and feature-bearing releases, and therefore there is no unnecessary downtime. When there are large clusters involved, rolling updates are simply not possible, in which case express updates are used. Unlike the previous case, here, there is downtime involved but is minimum as when the update is manual. Both rolling and express updates are free of manual updates.

Centralized security and application: The complexity of cluster security configuration and administration is greatly reduced by Ambari which is among the components of the Hadoop ecosystem. The tool also helps the automated setup of the advanced security constructs like Kerberos and Ranger.

Complete visibility to your cluster’s health: Through this tool, you can monitor your cluster’s health and availability. An easily customized web-based dashboard has metrics that give status information for each service in the cluster like HDFS, YARN, and HBase. The tool also helps with garnering and visualizing critical operational metrics for troubleshooting and analysis. Ambari predefines alerts that are integrated with the existing enterprise monitoring tools that monitor cluster components and hosts as per the specified check intervals. Through the browser interface, users can browse alerts for their clusters, search, and filter alerts. They can also view and modify alert properties and alert instances.

Metrics visualization and dashboarding: It provides a scalable low-latency storage system for Hadoop component metrics. Picking the metrics of Hadoop which truly matter requires considerable expertise and understanding of how the components work with each other. Grafana is a leading graph and dashboard builder that simplifies the metrics reviewing process. This is included with Ambari Metrics, along with HDP.

Extensibility and customization: Ambari lets a developer work on Hadoop gracefully in his/her enterprise setup. Ambari leverages the large innovative community which improves upon the tool and it also eliminates vendor lock-in. REST APIs along with Ambari Stacks and Views allows extensive flexibility for customization of HDP implementation.

Ambari Stacks wraps the life cycle control layer used to rationalize operations over a broad set of services. This includes a consistent approach that Ambari uses to manage different types of services like install, start, configure, status, and stop. When provisioning, cluster install experience is rationalized across a set of services by Stacks technology. A natural extension point for operators is provided by Stacks to plug in newly created services that can perform alongside Hadoop.

Third parties can plug in their views through Ambari Views. A view is an application that is deployed into an Ambari container where it offers UI capabilities to be plugged in to give out custom visualization, management, and monitoring features.

A menu must communicate to the user information about:

• The nature and purpose of the menu itself.
• The nature and purpose of each presented choice.
• How the proper choice or choices may be selected.

Menu Titles 

• Main menu:—Create a short, simple, clear, and distinctive title, describing the purpose of the entire series of choices.

• Submenus: — Submenu titles must be worded exactly the same as the menu choice previously selected to display them.
• General: —
  • Locate the title at the top of the listing of choices.
  • Spell out the title fully using either an:
    • Uppercase font.
    • Mixed-case font in the headline style.
  • Superfluous titles may be omitted.

Menu Choice Descriptions 

• Create meaningful choice descriptions that are familiar, fully spelled out, concise, and distinctive.
• Descriptions may be single words, compound words, or multiple words or phrases.
  • Exception: Menu bar items should be a single word (if possible).
  • Place the keyword first, usually a verb.
  • Use the headline style, capitalizing the first letter of each significant word in the choice description.
  • Use task-oriented not data-oriented wording.
  • Use parallel construction.
  • A menu choice must never have the same wording as its menu title.
  • Identical choices on different menus should be worded identically.
  • Choices should not be numbered.
  • Exception: If the listing is numeric in nature, graphic, or a list of varying items it may be numbered. 
  •  If menu options will be used in conjunction with a command language, the capitalization and syntax of the choices should be consistent with the command language.
  • Word choices as commands to the computer. 

 Menu Instructions

• For novice or inexperienced users, provide menu completion instructions.
  • Place the instructions in a position just preceding the part, or parts, of the menu to which they apply.
    • Left-justify the instruction and indent the related menu choice descriptions a minimum of three spaces to the right.
    • Leave a space line, if possible, between the instructions and the related menu choice descriptio
  • Present instructions in a mixed-case font in sentence style.
• For expert users, make these instructions easy to ignore by:
  • Presenting them in a consistent location.
  • Displaying them in a unique type style and/or color. 

Intent Indicators

• Cascade indicator:
  • To indicate that selection of an item will lead to a submenu, place a triangle or right-pointing solid arrow following the choice.
  • A cascade indicator must designate every cascaded menu.
• To a window indicator:
  • For choices that result in displaying a window to collect more information, place an ellipsis (. . .) immediately following the choice.
    • Exception do not use when an action:
      • Causes a warning window to be displayed.
      • May or may not lead to a window.
• ​​​​​​​Direct action items: — For choices that directly perform an action, no special indicator should be placed on the menu. 

Keyboard Equivalents 

• To facilitate keyboard selection of a menu choice, each menu item should be assigned a keyboard equivalent mnemonic.
• The mnemonic should be the first character of the menu item’s description.
  • If duplication exists in first characters, use another character in the duplicated item’s description.
  • Preferably choose the first succeeding consonant.
• Designate the mnemonic character by underlining it.
• Use industry-standard keyboard access equivalents when they exist.

Keyboard Accelerators 

• For frequently used items, provide a keyboard accelerator to facilitate keyboard selection.
• The accelerator may be one function key or a combination of keys.
  • Function key shortcuts are easier to learn than modifier plus letter shortcuts.
• Pressing no more than two keys simultaneously is preferred.
  • Do not exceed three simultaneous keystrokes.
• Use a plus (+) sign to indicate that two or more keys must be pressed at the same time.
• Accelerators should have some associative value to the item.
• Identify the keys by their actual key top engraving.
• If keyboard terminology differences exist, use:
  • The most common keyboard terminology.
  • Terminology contained on the newest PCs.
• Separate the accelerator from the item description by three spaces.
• Right-align the key descriptions.
• Do not use accelerators for:
  • Menu items that have cascaded menus.
  • Pop-up menus. Use industry-standard keyboard accelerators 

Common Usability Problems:

Mandel (1994) lists the 10 most common usability problems in graphical systems as reported by IBM usability specialists. They are:

• Ambiguous menus and icons.
• Languages that permit only single-direction movement through a system.
• Input and direct manipulation limits.
• Highlighting and selection limitations.
• Unclear step sequences.
• More steps to manage the interface than to perform tasks.
• Complex linkage between and within applications.
• Inadequate feedback and confirmation.
• Lack of system anticipation and intelligence.
• Inadequate error messages, help, tutorials, and documentation.

The Web, with its dynamic capabilities and explosive entrance into our lives, has unleashed what seems like more than its own share of usability problems. Many are similar to those outlined above. Web usability characteristics particularly wasteful of people’s time, and often quite irritating, are:

Visual clutter. A lack of “white space,” meaningless graphics, and unnecessary and wasteful decoration often turn pages into jungles of visual noise. Meaningful content lies hidden within the unending forest of vines and trees, forcing the user to waste countless minutes searching for what is relevant. Useless displayed elements are actually a form of visual noise.

Impaired information readability. Page readability is diminished by poor developer choices in typefaces, colors, and graphics. Use of innumerable typefaces and kaleidoscopic colors wrestle meaning from the screen. A person’s attention is directed towards trying to understand why the differences exist, instead of being focused toward identifying and understanding the page’s content. Backgrounds that are brightly colored or contain pictures or patterns greatly diminish the legibility of the overwritten text.

Incomprehensible components. Some design elements give the user no clue as to their function, leaving their purpose not at all obvious. Some icons and graphics, for example, are shrouded in mystery, containing no text to explain what they do. Some buttons don’t look at all like command buttons, forcing the user to “minesweep” the screen with a mouse to locate the objects that can be used to do something. Command buttons or areas that give no visual indication that they are clickable often won’t be clicked. Language is also often confusing, with the developer’s terminology being used, not that of the user.

Annoying distractions. Elements constantly in motion, scrolling marquees or text, blinking text, or looping continually running animations compete with meaningful content for the user’s eye’s and attention—and destroy a page’s readability. Automatically presented music or other sounds interrupt one’s concentration, as do nonrequested pop-up widows, which must be removed, wasting more of the user’s time. A person’s senses are under constant attack, and the benefits afforded by one’s peripheral vision are negated.

Confusing navigation. A site’s structure often resembles a maze of twisting pages into which the user wanders and is quite soon lost. Poor, little, or no organization exists among pages. The size and depth of many Web sites can eventually lead to a “lost in space” feeling as perceived site structure evaporates as one navigates. Embarking on a side trip can lead to a radical change in context or a path with no signposts or landmarks. Navigation links lead to dead-ends from which there is no return, or boomerang you right back to the spot where you are standing without you being aware of it. Some navigation elements are invisible. (See mystery icons and minesweeping above.) Confusing navigation violates expectations and results in disturbing unexpected behavior.

Inefficient navigation. A person must transverse content-free pages to find what is meaningful. One whole screen is used to point to another. Large graphics waste screen space and add to the page count. The path through the navigation maze is often long and tedious. Reams of useless data must be sifted through before a need can be fulfilled. Massive use of short pages with little content often creates the feeling that one is “link drunk.”

Inefficient operations. Time is wasted doing many things. Page download times can be excessive. Pages that contain, for example, large graphics and maps, large chunky headings, or many colors, take longer to download than text. Excessive information fragmentation can require navigation of long chains of links to reach relevant material, also accelerating user disorientation.

Excessive or inefficient page scrolling. Long pages requiring scrolling frequently lead to the user’s losing context as related information’s spatial proximity increases and some information entirely disappears from view and, therefore, from memory. Out of sight is often out of mind. If navigation elements and important content are hidden below the page top, they may be missed entirely. To have to scroll to do something important or complete a task can be very annoying; especially if the scrolling is caused by what the user considers is an irrelevancy or noise.

Information overload. Poorly organized or large amounts of information taxes one’s memory and can be overwhelming. Heavy mental loads can result from making decisions concerning which links to follow and which to abandon, given the large number of choices available. Or from trying to determine what information is important, and what is not. Or from trying to maintain one’s place in a huge forest of information trees. One easily becomes buried in decisions and information. Requiring even minimal amounts of learning to use a Web site adds to the mental load.

Design inconsistency. Design inconsistency has not disappeared with the Web. It has been magnified. The business system user may visit a handful of systems in one day, the Web user may visit dozens, or many more. It is expected that site differences will and must exist because each Web site owner strives for its own identity. For the user’s sake, however, some consistency must exist to permit a seamless flow between sites. Consistency is needed in, for example, navigation element location on a page and the look of navigation buttons (raised). The industry is diligently working on this topic and some “common practices” are already in place. The learning principle of rote memorization, however, is still being required within many sites. For example, the industry practice of using different standard link colors for unvisited sites (blue) and visited sites (purple) is often violated. This forces users to remember different color meanings in different places, and this also causes confusion between links and underlined text. Design guidelines for graphical user interfaces have been available for many years. Too often they are ignored (or the designer is unaware of them). Examples of inappropriate uses abound in design. The use of check boxes instead of radio buttons for mutually exclusive options, for example. Or the use of drop-down list boxes instead of combination boxes when the task mostly requires keyboard form fill-in. The Web is a form of the graphical user interface, and GUI guidelines should be followed.

Outdated information. One important value of a Web site is its “currentness.” Outdated information destroys a site’s credibility in the minds of many users, and therefore its usefulness. A useless site is not very usable.

Stale design caused by emulation of printed documents and past systems. The Web is a new medium with expanded user interaction and information display possibilities. While much of what we have learned in the print world and past information systems interface design can be ported to the Web, all of what we know should not be blindly moved from one to the other. Web sites should be rethought and redesigned using the most appropriate and robust design techniques available.

Some of these usability problems are a result of the Web’s “growing pains.” For other problems developers themselves can only be blamed, for they too often have created a product to please themselves and “look cool,” not to please their users. Symptoms of this approach include overuse of bleeding edge technology, a focus on sparkle, and jumping to implement the latest Internet technique or buzzword. These problems, of course, did not start with the Web. They have existed since designers began building user interfaces.

Important Human Characteristics in Design  :-

Perception

• Perception is our awareness and understanding of the elements and objects of our environment through the physical sensation of our various senses, including sight, sound, smell, and so forth. Perception is influenced, in part, by experience.
• Other perceptual characteristics include the following: 
  • Proximity. Our eyes and mind see objects as belonging together if they are near each other in space.
  • Similarity. Our eyes and mind see objects as belonging together if they share a common visual property, such as color, size, shape, brightness, or orientation.
  • Matching patterns. We respond similarly to the same shape in different sizes. The letters of the alphabet, for example, possess the same meaning, regardless of physical size.
  • Succinctness. We see an object as having some perfect or simple shape because perfection or simplicity is easier to remember.
  • Closure. Our perception is synthetic; it establishes meaningful wholes. If something does not quite close itself, such as a circle, square, triangle, or word, we see it as closed anyway.
  • Unity. Objects that form closed shapes are perceived as a group.
  • Continuity. Shortened lines may be automatically extended.
  • Balance. We desire stabilization or equilibrium in our viewing environment. Vertical, horizontal, and right angles are the most visually satisfying and easiest to look at.
  • Expectancies. Perception is also influenced by expectancies;  sometimes we perceive not what is there but what we expect to be there. Missing a spelling mistake in proofreading something we write is often an example of a perceptual expectancy error; we see not how a word is spelled, but how we expect to see it spelled.
  • Context. Context, environment, and surroundings also influence individual perception. For example, two drawn lines of the same length may look the same length or different lengths, depending on the angle of adjacent lines or what other people have said about the size of the lines.
  • Signals versus noise. Our sensing mechanisms are bombarded by many stimuli, some of which are important and some of which are not.  Important stimuli are called signals; those that are not important or unwanted are called noise. 

Memory

• Memory is viewed as consisting of two components, long-term and short-term (or working) memory.
• Short-term, or working, memory receives information from either the senses or long-term memory, but usually cannot receive both at once, the senses being processed separately. Within short-term memory a limited amount of information processing takes place. Information stored within it is variously thought to last from 10 to 30 seconds, with the lower number being the most reasonable speculation. Knowledge, experience, and familiarity govern the size and complexity of the information that can be remembered.
• Long-term memory contains the knowledge we possess. Information received in short-term memory is transferred to it and encoded within it, a process we call learning. It is a complex process requiring some effort on our part. 
• The learning process is improved if the information being transferred from short- term memory has structure and is meaningful and familiar.
• Learning is also improved through repetition. Unlike short-term memory, with its distinct limitations, long-term memory capacity is thought to be unlimited. An important memory consideration, with significant implications for interface design, is the difference in ability to recognize or recall words. 

Sensory Storage

• Sensory storage is the buffer where the automatic processing of information collected from our senses takes place. It is an unconscious process, large, attentive to the environment, quick to detect changes, and constantly being replaced by newly gathered stimuli. In a sense, it acts like radar, constantly scanning the environment for things that are important to pass on to higher memory.
• Repeated and excessive stimulation can fatigue the sensory storage mechanism, making it less attentive and unable to distinguish what is important (called habituation). Avoid unnecessarily stressing it.
• Design the interface so that all aspects and elements serve a definite purpose. Eliminating interface noise will ensure that important things will be less likely to be missed. 

Visual Acuity

• The capacity of the eye to resolve details is called visual acuity. It is the phenomenon that results in an object becoming more distinct as we turn our eyes toward it and rapidly losing distinctness as we turn our eyes away—that is, as the visual angle from the point of fixation increases.
• It has been shown that relative visual acuity is approximately halved at a distance of 2.5 degrees from the point of eye fixation.
• The eye’s sensitivity increases for those characters closest to the fixation point (the ―0‖) and decreases for those characters at the extreme edges of the circle (a 50/50 chance exists for getting these characters correctly identified). This may be presumed to be a visual ―chunk‖ of a screen.

Foveal and Peripheral Vision

• Foveal vision is used to focus directly on something; peripheral vision senses anything in the area surrounding the location we are looking at, but what is there cannot be clearly resolved because of the limitations in visual acuity just described.
• Foveal and peripheral vision maintain, at the same time, a cooperative and a competitive relationship. Peripheral vision can aid a visual search, but can also be distracting. 
• In its cooperative nature, peripheral vision is thought to provide clues to where the eye should go next in the visual search of a screen.
• In its competitive nature, peripheral vision can compete with foveal vision for attention. What is sensed in the periphery is passed on to our information- processing system along with what is actively being viewed foveally. 

Information Processing

• The information that our senses collect that is deemed important enough to do something about then has to be processed in some meaningful way.
• There are two levels of information processing going on within us. One level, the highest level, is identified with consciousness and working memory. It is limited, slow, and sequential, and is used for reading and understanding.
• In addition to this higher level, there exists a lower level of information processing, and the limit of its capacity is unknown. This lower level processes familiar information rapidly, in parallel with the higher level, and without conscious effort.
• Both levels function simultaneously, the higher level performing reasoning and problem solving, the lower level perceiving the physical form of information sensed. 

Mental Models 

• A mental model is simply an internal representation of a person’s current understanding of something. Usually a person cannot describe this mental mode and most often is unaware it even exists.
• Mental models are gradually developed in order to understand something, explain things, make decisions, do something, or interact with another person. Mental models also enable a person to predict the actions necessary to do things if the action has been forgotten or has not yet been encountered.
• A person already familiar with one computer system will bring to another system a mental model containing specific visual and usage expectations. If the new system complies with already-established models, it will be much easier to learn and use.
• The key to forming a transferable mental model of a system is design consistency and design standards. 

Movement Control

• Particularly important in screen design is Fitts’ Law (1954). This law states that:
  • The time to acquire a target is a function of the distance to and size of the target.
  • This simply means that the bigger the target is, or the closer the target is, the faster it will be reached.
  • The implications in screen design are:
    • Provide large objects for important functions.
    • Take advantage of the ―pinning‖ actions of the sides, top, bottom, and corners of the screen. 

Learning

• Learning, as has been said, is the process of encoding in long-term memory information.
• A design developed to minimize human learning time can greatly accelerate human performance. People prefer to stick with what they know, and they prefer to jump in and get started that is contained in short-term memory.
• Learning can be enhanced if it:
  • Allows skills acquired in one situation to be used in another somewhat like it. Design consistency accomplishes this.
  • Provides complete and prompt feedback.
  • Is phased, that is, it requires a person to know only the information needed at that stage of the learning process. 

Skill 

• The goal of human performance is to perform skillfully. To do so requires linking inputs and responses into a sequence of action. The essence of skill is performance of actions or movements in the correct time sequence with adequate precision.
• Skills are hierarchical in nature, and many basic skills may be integrated to form increasingly complex ones. Lower-order skills tend to become routine and may drop out of consciousness. 

Individual Differences 

• In reality, there is no average user. A complicating but very advantageous human characteristic is that we all differ—in looks, feelings, motor abilities, intellectual abilities, learning abilities and speed, and so on.
• Individual differences complicate design because the design must permit people with widely varying characteristics to satisfactorily and comfortably learn the task or job, or use the Web site.
• Multiple versions of a system can easily be created. Design must provide for the needs of all potential users. 

Data Structure can be defined as the group of data elements which provides an efficient way of storing and organising data in the computer so that it can be used efficiently. Some examples of Data Structures are arrays, Linked List, Stack, Queue, etc. Data Structures are widely used in almost every aspect of Computer Science i.e. Operating System, Compiler Design, Artifical intelligence, Graphics and many more.

Data Structures are the main part of many computer science algorithms as they enable the programmers to handle the data in an efficient way. It plays a vital role in enhancing the performance of a software or a program as the main function of the software is to store and retrieve the user's data as fast as possible.

Data Structure Classification

• Primitive Data Structure
• Non Primitive Data Structure
  • Linear
    • Static
      • Array
    • Dynamic
      • Linked list
      • Stack
      • Queue
  • Non Linear
    • Tree
    • Graph

Linear Data Structures: A data structure is called linear if all of its elements are arranged in the linear order. In linear data structures, the elements are stored in non-hierarchical way where each element has the successors and predecessors except the first and last element.

• Types of Linear Data Structures are given below:

Arrays: An array is a collection of similar type of data items and each data item is called an element of the array. The data type of the element may be any valid data type like char, int, float or double.

The elements of array share the same variable name but each one carries a different index number known as subscript. The array can be one dimensional, two dimensional or multidimensional.

The individual elements of the array age are:

age[0], age[1], age[2], age[3],......... age[98], age[99].

Linked List: Linked list is a linear data structure which is used to maintain a list in the memory. It can be seen as the collection of nodes stored at non-contiguous memory locations. Each node of the list contains a pointer to its adjacent node.

Stack: Stack is a linear list in which insertion and deletions are allowed only at one end, called top.

A stack is an abstract data type (ADT), can be implemented in most of the programming languages. It is named as stack because it behaves like a real-world stack, for example: - piles of plates or deck of cards etc.

Queue: Queue is a linear list in which elements can be inserted only at one end called rear and deleted only at the other end called front.

It is an abstract data structure, similar to stack. Queue is opened at both end therefore it follows First-In-First-Out (FIFO) methodology for storing the data items.

Non Linear Data Structures : This data structure does not form a sequence i.e. each item or element is connected with two or more other items in a non-linear arrangement. The data elements are not arranged in sequential structure.

• Types of Non Linear Data Structures are given below:

Trees: Trees are multilevel data structures with a hierarchical relationship among its elements known as nodes. The bottommost nodes in the herierchy are called leaf node while the topmost node is called root node. Each node contains pointers to point adjacent nodes.

Tree data structure is based on the parent-child relationship among the nodes. Each node in the tree can have more than one children except the leaf nodes whereas each node can have atmost one parent except the root node. Trees can be classfied into many categories which will be discussed later in this tutorial.

Graphs: Graphs can be defined as the pictorial representation of the set of elements (represented by vertices) connected by the links known as edges. A graph is different from tree in the sense that a graph can have cycle while the tree can not have the one.

MongoDB is a document-oriented NoSQL database used for high volume data storage. Instead of using tables and rows as in the traditional relational databases, MongoDB makes use of collections and documents. Documents consist of key-value pairs which are the basic unit of data in MongoDB. Collections contain sets of documents and function which is the equivalent of relational database tables. MongoDB is a database which came into light around the mid-2000s.

MongoDB Features :-

• Each database contains collections which in turn contains documents. Each document can be different with a varying number of fields. The size and content of each document can be different from each other.
• The document structure is more in line with how developers construct their classes and objects in their respective programming languages. Developers will often say that their classes are not rows and columns but have a clear structure with key-value pairs.
• The rows (or documents as called in MongoDB) doesn’t need to have a schema defined beforehand. Instead, the fields can be created on the fly.
• The data model available within MongoDB allows you to represent hierarchical relationships, to store arrays, and other more complex structures more easily.
• Scalability – The MongoDB environments are very scalable. Companies across the world have defined clusters with some of them running 100+ nodes with around millions of documents within the database

Characteristics of Big Data, called 3Vs (and 4Vs also used) are:​

Volume:

• - is related to size of the data and hence the characteristic.
• - Size defines the amount or quantity of data, which is generated from an application(s).
• - The size determines the processing considerations needed for handling that data.

Velocity:

• - The term velocity refers to the speed of generation of data.
• - Velocity is a measure of how fast the data generates and processes.
• - To meet the demands and the challenges of processing Big Data, the velocity of generation of data plays a crucial ro​​​le.

Variety:

• -comprises of a variety of data.
• -Data is generated from multiple sources in a system.
• -This introduces variety in data and therefore introduces ‘complexity’.
• -Data is in various forms and formats.
• -The variety is due to the availability of a large number of heterogeneous platforms in the industry.

1. Fault-efficient scalable, flexible and modular design:

• uses simple and modular programming model.
• The system provides servers at high scalability. The system is scalable by adding new nodes to handle larger data.
• Hadoop proves very helpful in storing, managing, processing and analyzing Big Data.
• Modular functions make the system flexible.
• One can add or replace components at ease.
• Modularity allows replacing its components for a different software tool.

2. Robust design of HDFS:

• Execution of Big Data applications continue even when an individual server or cluster fails.
• This is because of Hadoop provisions for backup (due to replications at least three times for each data block) and a data recovery mechanism.
• HDFS thus has high reliability.

3. Store and process Big Data:

• Processes Big Data of 3V characteristics.

4. Distributed clusters computing model with data locality :

• Processes Big Data at high speed as the application tasks and sub-tasks submit to the DataNodes.
• One can achieve more computing power by increasing the number of computing nodes.
• The processing splits across multiple DataNodes (servers), and thus fast processing and aggregated results.

5. Hardware fault-tolerant:

• A fault does not affect data and application processing. If a node goes down, the other nodes take care of the residue.
• This is due to multiple copies of all data blocks which replicate automatically.
• Default is three copies of data blocks.

6. Open-source framework:

• Open source access and cloud services enable large data store. Hadoop uses a cluster of multiple inexpensive servers or the cloud.

7. Java and Linux based:

• Hadoop uses Java interfaces. Hadoop base is Linux but has its own set of shell commands support.

Definition of Modern Interface Design 

• User interface design is a subset of a field of study called human-computer 
  interaction (HCI). Human-computer interaction is the study, planning, and design of how people and computers work together so that a person’s needs are satisfied in the most effective way.
• The user interface is the part of a computer and its software that people can see, hear, touch, talk to, or otherwise understand or direct. The user interface has essentially two components: input and output.
• Input is how people communicate his needs to the system using keyboard or any pointing device and output is how the system returns processing result to user 
  through screen or sound.
• The best interface is one which has proper design with combination of effective input and output mechanisms.

Importance of Good Design 

• Inspite of today’s rich technologies and tools we are unable to provide effective and usable screen because lack of time and care.
• A well-designed interface and screen is terribly important to our users. It is their window to view the capabilities of the system and it is also the vehicle trough which complex tasks can be performed.
• A screen’s layout and appearance affect a person in a variety of ways. If they are confusing and inefficient, people will have greater difficulty in doing their jobs and will make more mistakes.
• Poor design may even chase some people away from a system permanently. It can also lead to aggravation, frustration, and increased stress.

Benefits of Good Design 

• The benefits of a well-designed screen have also been under experimental scrutiny for many years. One researcher, for example, attempted to improve screen clarity and readability by making screens less crowded. The result: screen users of the modified screens completed transactions in 25 percent less time and with 25 percent fewer errors than those who used the original screens.
• Another researcher has reported that reformatting inquiry screens following good design principles reduced decision-making time by about 40 percent, resulting in a savings of 79 person-years in the affected system.
• Other benefits also accrue from good design (Karat, 1997). Training costs are lowered because training time is reduced, support line costs are lowered because fewer assist calls are necessary, and employee satisfaction is increased because aggravation and frustration are reduced.
• Another benefit is, ultimately, that an organization’s customers benefit because of the improved service they receive.
• Identifying and resolving problems during the design and development process also has significant economic benefits.

Sophisticated Visual Presentation

• Visual presentation is the visual aspect of the interface. It is what people see on the screen. The sophistication of a graphical system permits displaying lines, including drawings and icons. It also permits the displaying of a variety of character fonts, including different sizes and styles.
• The meaningful interface elements visually presented to the user in agraphical system include windows (primary, secondary, or dialog boxes), menus (menu bar, pull down, pop-up, cascading), icons to represent objects such as programs or files, assorted screen-based controls (text boxes, list boxes, combination boxes, settings, scroll bars, and buttons), and a mouse pointer and cursor. The objective is to reflect visually on the screen the real world of the user as realistically, meaningfully, simply, and clearly as possible.

Pick-and-Click Interaction

• To identify a proposed action is commonly referred to as pick, the signal to perform an action as click.
• The primary mechanism for performing this pick-and-click is most often the mouse and its buttons and the secondary mechanism for performing these selection actions is the keyboard.

Restricted Set of Interface Options

• The array of alternatives available to the user is what is presented on the screen or what may be retrieved through what is presented on the screen, nothing less, and nothing more. This concept fostered the acronym WYSIWYG.

Visualization

• Visualization is a cognitive process that allows people to understand information that is difficult to perceive, because it is either too voluminous or too abstract.
• The goal is not necessarily to reproduce a realistic graphical image, but to produce one that conveys the most relevant information. Effective visualizations can facilitate mental insights, increase productivity, and foster faster and more accurate use of data.

Object Orientation

• A graphical system consists of objects and actions. Objects are what people see on the screen as a single unit.
• Objects can be composed of subobjects. For example, an object may be a document and its subobjects may be a paragraph, sentence, word, and letter.
• Objects are divided into three meaningful classes as Data objects, which present information, container objects to hold other objects and Device objects represent physical objects in the real world.
• Objects can exist within the context of other objects, and one object may affect the way another object appears or behaves. These relationships are called collections, constraints, composites, and containers.
• Properties or Attributes of Objects : Properties are the unique characteristics of an object. Properties help to describe an object and can be changed by users.
• Actions: People take actions on objects. They manipulate objects in specific ways (commands) or modify the properties of objects (property or attribute specification).
• The following is a typical property/attribute specification sequence:
  • The user selects an object—for example, several words of text.
  • The user then selects an action to apply to that object, such as the action BOLD.
  • The selected words are made bold and will remain bold until selected and changed again.

Use of Recognition Memory 

•  Continuous visibility of objects and actions encourages to eliminate ― out of sight, out of mind‖ problem.

Concurrent Performance of Functions 

• Graphic systems may do two or more things at one time. Multiple programs may run simultaneously.
• It may process background tasks (cooperative multitasking) or preemptive multitasking.
• Data may also be transferred between programs. It may be temporarily stored on a clipboard for later transfer or be automatically swapped between programs.

1. Identification and tracking of Energy Pattern:-

Th​e first step of any program is identifying and tracking the energy pattern of that program. If we do not have the knowledge of when and where the energy is used, then there is no way to estimate the relative importance of any Energy Management Project.

2. Controlled energy system’s use:

To obtain more energy saving, it is not important to install more and more efficient components like electronic ballasts for T-8 lamps, etc. Instead, what is more important is that we must keep a check on the system’s use and ensure that the resources are aptly used.

3. Properly maintained and managed facilities:

A program with effectively maintained and managed facilities is the only program that offers effective Energy Management. The quantity of technological equipment has nothing to do with the success of the energy management program.

4. Good Maintenance practices:

To attain the highest rates of return on Energy Conservation, it is important to keep in mind the maintenance practices in the program. We know that Great Maintenance and Successful Energy Management go hand in hand, so simply by performing maintenance, we can achieve success in any energy management programs.

5. Preventive and Reactive Maintenance:

Despite the funding limitations, we know that waiting for any crisis to take place is a waste of time, i.e., reactive maintenance is imprudence. On the contrary, preventive maintenance is critical for the program’s success. It can be ignored when systems are new, heat exchange systems are clean, seals are tight and calibrations are precise. However, as the system ages, these items need care or preventive maintenance.

6. Distinction between Maintenance and Energy Management:

One should know the clear distinction between Maintenance and Energy Management. Cleaning and fixing of equipment for better use come under good maintenance while installation of more efficient equipment comes under good energy management. Both of these serve different purposes. It is very important to remember their differences whenever a budget is being prepared for any program.

7. Automated Energy Management Systems:

Even the most overrated technologies of automated energy management systems cannot recompense for a poor HVAC system design. No automation can bring more performance out of any system components if heating and cooling of loads is incorrectly calculated or if the set of equipment is inappropriate.

Energy Audit:

Energy Audit is defined as “the verification, monitoring and analysis of use of energy including submission of technical report containing recommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost benefit analysis and an action plan to reduce energy consumption”.

Need for Energy Audit :

In any industry, the three top operating expenses are often found to be energy (both electrical and thermal), labour and materials. If one were to relate to the manageability of the cost or potential cost savings in each of the above components, energy would invariably emerge as a top ranker, and thus energy management function constitutes a strategic area for cost reduction. Energy Audit will help to understand more about the ways energy and fuel are used in any industry, and help in identifying the areas where waste can occur and where scope for improvement exists.

The Energy Audit would give a positive orientation to the energy cost reduction, preventive maintenance and quality control programmes which are vital for production and utility activities. Such an audit programme will help to keep focus on variations which occur in the energy costs, availability and reliability of supply of energy, decide on appropriate energy mix, identify energy conservation technologies, retrofit for energy conservation equipment etc.

In general, Energy Audit is the translation of conservation ideas into realities, by lending technically feasible solutions with economic and other organizational considerations within a specified time frame.

The primary objective of Energy Audit is to determine ways to reduce energy consumption per unit of product output or to lower operating costs. Energy Audit provides a “ bench-mark” (Reference point) for managing energy in the organization and also provides the basis for planning a more effective use of energy throughout the organization.

Artificial intelligence (AI), also known as machine intelligence, is a branch of computer science that focuses on building and managing technology that can learn to autonomously make decisions and carry out actions on behalf of a human being.

The task domains of AI are

The domain of AI is classified into different task categories such as Mundane/General tasks, Formal tasks and Expert tasks.  

Mundane tasks are the ones that we( the humans) do on regular basis without any special training such as computer vision, speech recognition, Natural language processing, generation and translation etc. Common sense, reasoning and planning are the common characteristics of these tasks. 

Formal tasks - are the ones where there is an application of formal logic, some learning etc. Verifications, Theorom proving etc are the common characteristics. Games such as Chess Checkers, Go etc are classified in these task.

Then there are

expert task which comes under functional expert domain such as engineering, fault finding, manufacturing planning, medical diagnosis etc.

Expert tasks- Tasks which requires high analytical and thinking skills, a job only a professionals can do.

DIRECT MANIPULATION :-

Direct manipulation (DM) is an interaction style in which users act on displayed objects of interest using physical, incremental, reversible actions whose effects are immediately visible on the screen. Direct manipulation is one of the central concepts of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and is sometimes equated with “what you see is what you get” (WYSIWYG). These interfaces combine menu-based interaction with physical actions such as dragging and dropping in order to help the user use the interface with minimal learning.

The term direct manipulation is given by Shneiderman (1982) as they possess the following characteristics:

i. The system is portrayed as an extension of the real world.

ii. Continuous visibility of objects and actions.

iii. Actions are rapid and incremental with visible display of results.

iv. Incremental actions are easily reversible.

Example for direct manipulation:

On a mobile phone you can pinch out to zoom into an image and pinch in to zoom out. The action of using your fingertips to zoom in and out of the image is an example of a direct-manipulation interaction. Another classic example is dragging a file from a folder to another one in order to move it.

INDIRECT MANIPULATION :-

Indirect manipulation substitutes words and text, such as pull-down or pop-up menus, for symbols and substitutes typing for pointing. Most window systems are a combination of both direct manipulation and indirect manipulation.

In practice, direct manipulation of all screen objects and actions may not be feasible because of the following:

i. The operation may be difficult to conceptualize in graphical system.

ii. The graphics capability of the system may be limited.

iii. The amount of space available for placing manipulation controls in the window border may be limited.

iv. It may be difficult for people to learn and remember all the necessary operations and actions.

Characteristics of the Graphical User Interface

• Sophisticated Visual Presentation.
• Pick-and-Click Interaction.
• Restricted Set of Interface Options.
• Visualization.
• Object Orientation.
• Use of Recognition Memory.
• Concurrent Performance of Functions.

Sophisticated Visual Presentation :- 

Visual presentation is the visual aspect of the interface. It is what people see on the screen. The sophistication of a graphical system permits displaying lines, including drawings and icons. It also permits the displaying of a variety of character fonts, including different sizes and styles.

The meaningful interface elements visually presented to the user in a graphical system include windows (primary, secondary, or dialog boxes), menus (menu bar, pulldown, pop-up, cascading), icons to represent objects such as programs or files, assorted screen-based controls (text boxes, list boxes, combination boxes, settings, scroll bars, and buttons), and a mouse pointer and cursor. The objective is to reflect visually on the screen the real world of the user as realistically, meaningfully, simply, and clearly as possible.

Pick-and-Click Interaction:-

To identify a proposed action is commonly referred to as pick, the signal to perform an action as click. The primary mechanism for performing this pick-and-click is most often the mouse and its buttons and the secondary mechanism for performing these selection actions is the keyboard.

Restricted Set of Interface Options:-

The array of alternatives available to the user is what is presented on the screen or what may be retrieved through what is presented on the screen, nothing less, and nothing more. This concept fostered the acronym WYSIWYG.

Visualization:-

Visualization is a cognitive process that allows people to understand information that is difficult to perceive, because it is either too voluminous or too abstract. The goal is not necessarily to reproduce a realistic graphical image, but to produce one that conveys the most relevant information. Effective visualizations can facilitate mental insights, increase productivity, and foster faster and more accurate use of data.

Object Orientation:-

• A graphical system consists of objects and actions. Objects are what people see on the screen as a single unit. 
• Objects can be composed of subobjects .For example, an object may be a document and its subbjects may be a paragraph, sentence, word, and letter.
• Objects are divided into three meaningful classes as Data objects, which present information, container objects to hold other objects and Device objects, represent physical objects in the real world. 
• Objects can exist within the context of other objects, and one object may affect the way another object appears or behaves. These relationships are called collections, constraints, composites, and containers.

Use of Recognition Memory:-

 Continuous visibility of objects and actions encourages to eliminate “out of sight, out of mind” problem

Concurrent Performance of Functions:-

Graphic systems may do two or more things at one time. Multiple programs may run simultaneously. It may process background tasks (cooperative multitasking) or preemptive multitasking. Data may also be transferred between programs. It may be temporarily stored on a “clipboard” for later transfer or be automatically swapped between programs.

• A graphical system consists of objects and actions. Objects are what people see on the screen as a single unit.
• Objects can be composed of subobjects. For example, an object may be a document and its subobjects may be a paragraph, sentence, word, and letter.
• Objects are divided into three meaningful classes as Data objects, which present information, container objects to hold other objects and Device objects represent physical objects in the real world.
• Objects can exist within the context of other objects, and one object may affect the way another object appears or behaves. These relationships are called collections, constraints, composites, and containers.

Characteristics of the Graphical User Interface:-

Sophisticated Visual Presentation:-

Visual presentation is the visual aspect of the interface. It is what people see on the screen. The sophistication of a graphical system permits displaying lines, including drawings and icons. It also permits the displaying of a variety of character fonts, including different sizes and styles. The meaningful interface elements visually presented to the user in a graphical system include windows (primary, secondary, or dialog boxes), menus (menu bar, pulldown, pop-up, cascading), icons to represent objects such as programs or files, assorted screen-based controls (text boxes, list boxes, combination boxes, settings, scroll bars, and buttons), and a mouse pointer and cursor. The objective is to reflect visually on the screen the real world of the user as realistically, meaningfully, simply, and clearly as possible.

 Pick-and-Click Interaction:-

To identify a proposed action is commonly referred to as pick, the signal to perform an action as click. The primary mechanism for performing this pick-and-click is most often the mouse and its buttons and the secondary mechanism for performing these selection actions is the keyboard.

Restricted Set of Interface Options:-

The array of alternatives available to the user is what is presented on the screen or what may be retrieved through what is presented on the screen, nothing less, and nothing more. This concept fostered the acronym WYSIWYG.

Visualization:-

Visualization is a cognitive process that allows people to understand information that is difficult to perceive, because it is either too voluminous or too abstract. The goal is not necessarily to reproduce a realistic graphical image, but to produce one that conveys the most relevant information. Effective visualizations can facilitate mental insights, increase productivity, and foster faster and more accurate use of data.

 Object Orientation:-

• A graphical system consists of objects and actions. Objects are what people see on the screen as a single unit.
• Objects can be composed of subobjects .For example, an object may be a document and its subobjects may be a paragraph, sentence, word, and letter.
• Objects are divided into three meaningful classes as Data objects, which present information, container objects to hold other objects and Device objects, represent physical objects in the real world.
• Objects can exist within the context of other objects, and one object may affect the way another object appears or behaves. These relationships are called collections, constraints, composites, and containers. 

Use of Recognition Memory:-

Continuous visibility of objects and actions encourages to eliminate “out of sight, out of mind” problem

Concurrent Performance of Functions:-

Graphic systems may do two or more things at one time. Multiple programs may run simultaneously. It may process background tasks (cooperative multitasking) or preemptive multitasking. Data may also be transferred between programs. It may be temporarily stored on a “clipboard” for later transfer or be automatically swapped between programs.